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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



IMPROVED SYNTAX. 



FART I. 

COMPREHENDING AT ONE VIEW WHAT IS NECESSARY TO BE 
COMMITTED TO MEMORY. 

FART II. 

CONTAINING A RECAPITULATION, WITH VARIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS 

AND 

CRITICAL REMARKS. 
DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP SCHOOLS. 



BY J. M .PUTNAM. 



CAMBRIDGE. 

UNIVERSITY PRESS-PRINTED BY HILLIARD AND METCALF. 

1825. 






DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO "WIT: 

District Clerk?* Office. 

BE it remembered, that on the twenty-sixth day of October, A. D. 1825, and 
in the fiftieth year of the Independence of the United States of America, J. M. 
Putnam, of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the 
right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : 

u English Grammar, with an improved Syntax. Part I. comprehending at one 
view what is necessary to be committed to memory. Part II. containing a recapitu- 
lation, with various illustrations and critical remarks. In signed for the use of 
Schools, By J. M. Putnam." 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An 
act tor the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, 
and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein 
mentioned ; " and also to an act entitled, " An act, supplementary to an act 
entitled, ' An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the 
times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of design- 
ing, engraving, and etching, historical and other prints."' 

JOHN W. DAVIS, 
Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. 



Js r 



PREFACE. 



Several elementary works on English Grammar 
having already appeared before the public, the neces- 
sity and expediency of adding another to their number 
may perhaps be doubted. The ability, however, with 
which some eminent authors have treated this subject, 
does not preclude the possibility of further improve- 
ments. All sciences must advance by slow degrees to- 
wards perfection. The author believes that he has 
done something, at least, to elucidate the science of 
English Grammar, or he would not presume to give 
publicity to the result of his labours. 

In the first part of this work, every thing relating to 
the subject of English Grammar has been embodied, 
which was deemed important for the learner to commit 
to memory. The object in making this arrangement 
was, to relieve the instructer from the trouble of mark- 
ing detached passages ; and to encourage the pupil by 
showing him, at one view, how small a tax is laid on 
his patience, in this least interesting part of his study. 
The ground which he is to go over, he sees, at once, is 
of very limited extent 5 and the reflection that by dili- 
gent and persevering efforts, he can accomplish, in a 



PREFACE. 

very short time, the task of committing, will inspire him 
with fortitude in the undertaking, and render his pro- 
gress more rapid and pleasing. 

In the second part of the work, the elements of the 
science are exhibited in a more full and extended form, 
accompanied with a variety of familiar illustrations. 
Terms and distinctions, in a style adapted to the ca- 
pacity of the youthful mind, are carefully explained. 
Words of doubtful construction, whose nature and office 
are changed on account of the different connexions 
which they sustain in a sentence, have received special 
attention ; and their various applications have been il- 
lustrated by familiar examples. No pains have been 
spared to render the whole subject intelligible — to di- 
vest it of mystery and difficulty — and to make it an 
interesting and useful study. 

The improvements in syntax, it is believed, are of 
considerable importance. Rules have been added, by 
which the pupil will be able to parse many difficult 
sentences and phrases which have always, particularly 
to young beginners, been a source of perplexity and 
discouragement. The fact is not to be denied, for 
every teacher has felt its truth, that many sentences 
which are unexceptionable in their grammatical con- 
struction, cannot be parsed with propriety by any rules 
in the common systems of English Grammar. Of this 
description are the following : — " The book is worth 
perusing — or worth a perusal : He was offered a large 
sum for his estate : The bridge is twenty rods long : He 



died seven years ago : The article cost me a dollar" 
The words marked with italics, are those which de- 
mand particular attention. The awkward and forced 
manner in which sentences like these are attempted to 
be parsed by the application of the rules in our com- 
mon grammars; clearly proves that their syntax is 
greatly deficient. But these sentences, and those of a 
similar nature, which have been a source of so much 
vexation and discouragement to young grammarians, 
may be parsed with the greatest ease, by means of a 
good syntax, comprising suitable rules. 

It may not be improper to remark, that, in preparing 
this work, the Author has used the common privilege 
of elementary writers : so far as it was convenient for 
his purpose, he has availed himself of the labours of his 
predecessors. For the omission of authors' names, it is 
perhaps unnecessary to apologize. " From the altera- 
tions," says Mr. Murray in his Introduction to English 
Grammar, " which have been frequently made in the 
sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and 
to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they 
are introduced ; and, in many instances, from the un- 
certainty to whom the passages originally belonged, the 
insertion of names could seldom be made with proprie- 
ty. But if this could have been generally done, a work 
of this nature would derive no advantage from it, equal 
to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repe- 
tition of names and references." 



CONTENTS. 



Part I. Part IL 

Substantives. 1 17 

Gender. - 2 19 

Number. 2 20 

Case. 2 22 

Articles. 3 23 

Adjectives. - 3 25 

Degrees of Comparison. - - - - 3 26 

Pronouns. 3 28 

Personal Pronouns. - - - - 3 29 

Relative Pronouns. - - - - 5 30 

Adjective Pronouns. 5 33 

Verbs. - - - - - - 6 38 

Regular Verbs. - - - - 6 41 

Irregular Verbs. - - - - 6 41 

Defective Verbs. - - - - 6 41 

Number and Person of Verbs. - - - 6 42 

Moods and Participles. - 7 42 

Tenses. - ... - - - 7 45 

Conjugation of tbe Verb to be. - - - 8 48 

Formation of tbe Tenses. - • - 8 48 
Remarks on tbe different forms of tbe Subjunctive 

Present. ------ 52 

Conjugation of tbe Verb to have. - - 11 54 

Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their simple form. 57 

Remarks on the meaning and force of tbe Auxiliaries. 61 

Conjugation of the Verb to love. - 63 

List of Irregular Verbs. - 72 

Adverbs. - - "' - - 12 79 

Prepositions. - - - - 12 83 

Conjunctions. - 13 87 

Interjections. - - - 13 89 

Derivation. - 90 

Syntax. ----- 14 96 



CONTENTS. 



Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative. 
The Infinitive Mood or part of a sentence a Nomina- 
tive. - If. 4' - l*.l*- 

Nominative Independent. 

Nominative Absolute. - 

Government of a Noun in the Possessive Case. 

Objective Case governed by a Transitive Verb.- 

Objective g-overned by a Participie. 

Verbs governing- two Objectives. 

Objective governed by a Preposition. 

Objective governed by the Conjunction as. 

Objective governed by an Interjection. 

Objective governed by the Adverb like and the Adjec 

tives worth and like. - 

Nouns in the Objective without a governing word. 
Objective governed by a Participial Noun. 
Nouns in Apposition. .... 

Verbs having the same case before and after them. 
Agreement of Pronouns with their Antecedents. 
Construction of the Relative Pronouu in regard to case. 16 
Relation of Adjectives &c. to Nouns 
Office of Adverbs. .... 

Office of Conjunctions. ... 

Nouns connected by a Conjunction Copulative, &.c. 
A Noun of Multitude. ... 

Government of the Infinitive Mood. 
Supplementary Observations. 
Specimen of Parsing. 
Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing. 



Parti. 


Part n. 


14 


98 


a- 
14 


100 


14 


101 


14 


101 


15 


102 


15 


104 


15 


105 


15 


106 


15 


107 


15 


108 


15 


108 


5C- 

15 


109 


15 


110 


15 


110 


15 


111 


15 


112 


16 


113 


e. 16 


116 


16 


117 


16 


122 


16 


123 


16 


125 


16 


126 


16 


127 




128 




133 




136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 



1. English Grammar is the art or science of speaking 
and writing the English language with propriety. 

2. It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

3. Orthography teaches the nature and powers of 
letters, and the just method of spelling words. 

4. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivation. 

5. Syntax treats of the agreement and construction 
of words in a sentence. 

6. Prosody consists of two parts; the former teaches 
the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, 
quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and the latter, 
the laws of versification.* 

ETYMOLOGY. 

7. Words are divided into nine sorts, commonly call- 
ed parts of speech ; viz. substantive or noun, article, 
adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunc- 
tion, and interjection. 

Of Substantives. 

8. A substantive or noun is the name of a thing. The 
name of any thing which we can see, taste, smell, hear, 
feel, or conceive of, is a noun. 

* Orthography and Prosody are not particularly treated ; the for- 
mer more properly belongs to the exercises of the spelling-Ltpok; 
and the latter, to the study of Rhetoric. 

I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part J. 

9. Substantives are either proper or common. Prop- 
er substatnives are names appropriated to individuals, 
without any reference to kind. Common substantives 
are appropriated to kinds, or whole species, containing 
many individuals under them. 

10. To substantives belong gender, number, and 
case. 

11. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
sex. There are three genders, viz. masculine, femi- 
nine, and neuter. 

12. The masculine gender denotes animals of the 
male kind ; the feminine gender denotes animals of the 
female kind ; the neuter gender denotes objects which 
are neither male nor female. 

13. Number is a term which has reference to quan- 
tity, as consisting of one or more particulars or objects. • 

14. Substantives are of two numbers, viz. singular 
and plural. The singular number expresses but one 
object; the plural number expresses more objects than 
one. 

15. Case is the state or relation which the noun sus- 
tains to the other words in the sentence. 

16. Substantives have three cases, viz. nominative, 
possessive, and objective. 

17. The nominative case expresses the name of a 
thing existing or acting as the subject of discourse. 

18. The possessive case expresses the relation of 
property or possession, and in general has an apostro- 
phe with the letter s coming after it, 

19. The objective case generally expresses the ob- 
ject of an action or relation. 

20. Substantives are declined in the following man- 
ner. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative case. Man. Men. 

Possessive case. Man's. Men's. 

Objective case. Man. Men. 



Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 3 

Of Articles. 

21. An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
point them out and limit their signification. - 

22. There are two articles, a and the ; a usually oe- 
comes an before a vowel or silent h. 

23. A or an is styled the indefinite article, because 
it is used in an indefinite or vague sense to point ou 
one single thing of a kind or species ; the is styled the 
definite article, because it is used in a definite sense to 
point out what particular thing or things are meant. 

Of Adjectives. 

24. An adjective is a word added to a substantive to 
qualify it.* 

25. To the adjective are ascribed three degrees of 
comparison, viz. positive, comparative, and superlative. 

26. An adjective of the positive kind is in its sim- 
plest state ; the comparative degree increases or lessens 
the positive in signification ; and the ..superlative in- 
creases or lessens the signification of the positive to the 
highest or lowest degree. 

27. The simple word, or positive, becomes the com- 
parative by adding r or er ; and the superlative by 
adding st or est. The adverbs more and most, placed 
before the adjective, have the same effect. 

Of Pronouns, 

28. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. 

29. There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. personal, 
relative, and adjective pronouns. 

30. There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. i, thou or 

* By qualifying a substantive, is meant, either lo point out its kind, 
to express some circumstance respecting it, or in any way to fit it to 
sustain, in the best manner, its office in a sentence. See remarks 
ujider the head of Mjectives, Part II, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Part I. 



you* he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

31. The persons of pronouns are three in each num- 
ber, viz 

1 is the first person } 

Thou or you is the second person > Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person S 

We is the first person } 

Ye or yow is the second person > Plural. 

They is the third person S 

3!2. The gender of pronouns has respect only to the 
third person singular ; He is masculine, She is femi- 
nine, It is neuter. 

33. Pronouns have three cases, viz. nominative, pos- 
sessive, and objective. The objective case of a pro- 
noun has, in general, a form different fiom that of the 
nominative or the possessive case. 

34. The personal pronouns are thus declined. 



First. 



Case. 

CJVom. 


Singular. 




Plural. 

We. 


< Poss. 


Mine. 




Ours. 


1 Obj. 


Me. 




Us. 


C Norn. 
< Poss. 


Thou or 
Thine oi 


you. 
• yours. 


Ye or you, 
Yours. 


1 Obj. 


Thee or 


you. 


You. 


C Norn. 
< Poss. 


He. 
His. 




They. 
Theirs. 


1 Obj. 


Him. 




Them. 


C JVom. 
< Poss. 


She. 
Hers. 




They. 
Theirs. 


1 Obj. 


Her. 




Them. 


C JYojn. 
< Poss. 


It. 
Its. 




They. 
Theirs. 


1 Obj. 


It. 




Them. 



Second. 

Third, 
Masc. 

Third, 
Femin. 

Third, 
JVeuter. 



* You is used either in the singular or plural number, but requires 
the verb, with which it agrees, to be always in the plural form 



Part J.] ETYMOLOGY. 5 

35. Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general 
to some word or phrase going before, which on this ac- 
count is called the antecedent. They are who, which, 
that, what, and sometimes as. 

36. Who is applied to persons, which to things, and 
that to both persons and things ; what is a compound 
relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, 
and is equivalent to that which. 

37. Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 





Singular and Plural, 


Nom. 


Who. 


Poss. 


Whose. 


Obj. 


Whom. 



38. Who, which, and what are called interrogatives 
when they are used in asking questions. 

39. Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, par- 
ticipating the properties both of pronouns and adjec- 
tives ; and may be divided into four sorts, viz. possess- 
ive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. 

40. The possessive are those which relate to pro- 
perty or possession. There are seven of them, viz. 
my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

41. The distributive are those which denote the per- 
sons or tilings that make up a number as taken separ- 
ately and singly. They are each, every, either. 

42. The demonstrative are those which point out 
precisely the subjects to which they relate. They are 
this and that, these and those. 

43. The indefinite are those which express their sub- 
jects in an indefinite or general manner. The follow- 
ing are of this kind, viz. some, other, any, one, all, 
suck, he* 

* The distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite adjective pro- 
nouns are frequently joined to the substantives to which they relate. 
They then become adjectives and should be parsed as such. For 
1* 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part 1. 

44. Other is declined in the following manner : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. 


Other. 


Others. 


Poss. 


Other's. 


Others'. 


Obj. 


Other. 


Others. 



Of Verbs. 

45. A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 
to suffer. Verbs are of three kinds ; transitive, intran- 
sitive, and passive. They are also divided into regular, 
irregular, and defective. 

46. A transitive verb is one which passes over from 
the agent or subject and terminates on some object. 

47. An intransitive verb is one which does not pass 
over to an object, but whose being or action is confined 
to the subject or actor. 

48. A passive verb expresses passion or suffering, or 
the receiving of an action.* 

49. Verbs are called regular, when they form their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition 
of d or ed ; and irregular when they do not. 

50. Defective verbs are those which are used only 
in some of their moods and tenses. 

51. Auxiliary or helping verbs are those, by the help 
of which the principal verbs are chiefly conjugated ; 
they are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their 
variations ; and let and must, which have no variation. 

52. To verbs belong number, person, mood, and 
tense. The number and person of verbs always cor- 
respond with the nouns or pronouns with which they 
agree.f 

the sake of distinguishing them from other adjectives, they may be 
called pronominal adjectives. 

* Verbs implying action, and which terminate on an object, are, 
by some grammarians, styled uctirt verbs ; those which imply simply 
being or state of being, neuter verbs. 

i Verbs of themselves, i. e. independently of the noun or pronoun 



Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 7 

53. Mood or Mode is the particular form which the 
verb assumes to express different states of the mind, 
and different circumstances of being; or action. 

54. There are five moods of verbs, viz. the indica- 
tive, the imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and 
the infinitive. 

55. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares 
a thing. 

56. The imperative mood is used for commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 

57. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, or obligation. 

58. The subjunctive mood represents a thing under 
a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &lc. and is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb. 

59. The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a gen- 
eral and unlimited manner, without any distinction of 
number or person. 

60. The participle is a certain form of the verb, and 
derives its name from its participating not only the 
properties of a verb, but also those of an adjective and 
noun. 

61. There are three participles, the present or active, 
the perfect or passive, and the compound perfect. 

62. Tense or time is made to consist of six varia- 
tions, viz. the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
pluperfect, and theirs* and second future. 

63. The present tense represents an action or event 
as passing at the time in which it is mentioned. 

64. The imperfect tense represents the action or 
event either as past and finished, or as remaining un- 
finished at a certain time past. 

65. The perfect tense not only refers to what is past, 
but also conveys an allusion to the present time. 

with which they agree, have no number or person. See remark* 
no this subject, Part II. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part I. 

66. The pluperfect tense represents a thing not only 
as past, but also as prior to some other point of time 
specified in the sentence. 

67. The first future tense represents the action as 
yet to come, either with or without respect to the pre- 
cise time when. 

68. The second future intimates that the action will 
be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another 
future action or event. 

69. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
nation and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, 
moods, and tenses. 

70. The verb to be is conjugated as follows : 

To Be. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am 1. We are. 

2. Thou art, or you are. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast, or you were. 2. Ye or }ou were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been, or you 2. Ye or yon have been. 

have been. 3. They have been. 

3. He has been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been, or you 2. Ye or you had been. 

had been. 3. They had been. 

3. He had been. 



Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 9 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, or 2. Ye. or you shall or will 

you shall or will be. be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been, or 2. Ye or you will have 

you will have been. been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou, or do thou be, 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 
or be you, or do you 
be. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. ♦ Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be, 2. Ye or you may or can 

or you may or can be. be. 

3. He may or can be, 3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense.* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be. or should he. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or you 2. Ye or you might, could, 

might, could, would, or wouid, or should be. 

should be. 3. Tbey might, could, would, 

3. "He might, could, would, or should be. 

or should be. 

♦This form of the verh in the potential mood has usually been 
ranked in the imperfect tense, and it is frequently used in a manner 
which will hear the signification of that tense ; but it is not less fre- 
quently found in the present or future. Indeed it is a f >rm of the 
verb which is used indiscriminately, to express past, present, or fu- 
ture time ; the construction of the sentence alone determining to- 
which tense it belongs. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part I. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I mayor can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 

have been, or you may have bee n. 

or can have been. 3. They may or can have 

3. He may or can have been. 

been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have been. or should have been. 

2 .Thou mightst, &,c. or you 2. Ye or you might, could, 

might, could, would, or would, or should have 

should have been. been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have been. or should have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. — First Form.* 



2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I am. 

If thou art, or if you are. 
If he is. 


Plural. 

1. If we are. 

2. If ye or you are. 

3. If they are. 




Present Tense, 


, — Second Form. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I be. 

If thou be, or if you be. 
If he be. 

Present Tense 


Plural 

1. I we be. 

2. If ye or you be. 

3. If they be. 
— Third Form. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
If I were. 
If thou wert, or if you 

were. 
If he were. 


Plural. 

1. If we vrere. 

2. If ye or you were. 

3. If they were.t . 



* See remarks on the different forms of the subjunctive present, 
Part IT. 

t In the subjunctive imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first future, and 
second future, the verb is conjugated just as it is in those tenses of the 



Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 11 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 

Compound perfect. Having been. 

71. The verb to have is conjugated as follows : 
To Have. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast, or you have. 2. Ye or you have. 

3. He, she, or it hath or has. 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2 Thou hadst or you had. 2. Ye or you had. 
3. He had. 3. They had. 

The perfect and pluperfect are formed from the pre- 
sent and imperfect by annexing had; as, (perfect) / 
have had, he. (pluperfect) J had had, &c. The first 
future is formed from the present by prefixing the 
auxiliary shall or will, as, 1 shall or will have, he. 
The second future is formed from the first by annexing 
had; as, I shall have had, You will have had, he. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Have thou, or do thou 2. Have ye or you, or do 

have, or have you, or ye or you have, 

do you have. 

indicative mood, except that will and wilt are not used in the sub- 
junctive second future, and that a conjunction is added implying 
doubt or condition. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \Part I. 

The potential mood is formed by prefixing the auxil- 
iaries may, can, might, could, would, should, in the 
manner they were applied to the verb to be in all its 
variations ; as, J may or can have ; Thou mayst, he. 

The subjunctive is formed by the addition of a con- 
junction ; as, If 1 have, he. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present. To have. Perfect. To have had. 

Participles. 

Present or active. Having. 

Perfect or passive. Had. 

Compound perfect. Having had. 

72. A passive verb is conjugated by adding the per- 
fect participle to the auxiliary to be through all its 
changes of number, person, mood, and tense.* 

Of Adverbs. 

73. An adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
an adjective, a preposition, and other adverbs, to quali- 
fy them. 

74. Some adverbs are compared ; as, Soon, sooner, 
soonest ; often, oftener, ofienest ; those ending in ly 
are compared by more and most ; as, Wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely. 

Of Prepositions. 

75. Prepositions serve to connect words with one 
another, and to show the relation between them. They 
are for the most part put before nouns and pronouns, 
and always require an objective case after them, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

* A conjugation of transitive and passive verbs throughout, see 
in Part II. 



Part I.] ETYMOLOGY. 13 

Of Conjunctions, 

76. A conjunction is a part of speech that is chief- 
ly used to connect sentences; so as out of two or more 
sentences to make but one. It sometimes connects 
only words. 

77. Conjunctions are properly divided into two 
sorts, the copulative and the disjunctive. 

78. The conjunction copulative serves to connect 
or to continue a sentence by expressing an addition, a 
supposition, a cause, &c. 

79. The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to 
connect and continue the sentence, but also to express 
opposition of meaning in different degrees. 

, Of Interjections, 

80. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
of the speaker. 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* [PaH I. 

SYNTAX. 



81. Syntax treats of the agreement and construction 
of words in a sentence. 

82. A sentence is an assemblage of words forming 
complete sense. 

83. A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, making sometimes part of a sentence, and some- 
times a whole sentence. 

84. Syntax principally consists of two parts ; Con- 
cord and Government 

85 Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

86. Government is that power which one part of 
speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense. 
or case. 



SYNTAX OF THE DIFFERENT CASES OF NOUNS AND 
PRONOUNS. 

Nominative Case. 

Rule 1. A verb agrees with its nominative, in num- 
ber and person. 

Rule 2. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, 
is sometimes used substantively, and performs the office 
of a nominative case to a verb 

Rule 3 When a direct address is made, the noun 
or pronoun is in the nominative case independei t. 

Rule 4. A noun or pronoun connected with a parti- 
ciple, and standing independently of the rest of the 
Sentence, is in the nominative case absolute. 



Part I.] SYNTAX. 

Possessive Case. 

Rule 5. When two nouns come together, signifying 
different things, the former implying possession, is in 
the possessive case,* and is governed by the latter. 

Objective Case. 

Rule 6. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Rule 7. Participles of transitive verbs govern the 
objective case. 

Rule 8. Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others 
of a similar nature, govern two objectives, the one of 
a person, the other of a thing. 

Rule 9. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Rule 10. The conjunction as, when it takes the 
meaning of for, or, in the character of, becomes a prep- 
osition, and governs an objective. 

Rule II. Interjections sometimes govern the ob- 
jective case. 

Rule 12. The adverb like, and the adjectives worth 
and like, sometimes govern the objective case. 

Rule 13. Nouns implying measure, price, length of 
time, and distance of space, are put in the objective, 
without a governing word. 

Rule 14. Participial nounsf may have the same 
cases, and be governed in the same manner, with com- 
mon substantives. They also have the power of gov- 
erning other words in the objective case. 

Cases Corresponding. 

Rule 15. Two or more nouns coming together and 
signifying the same thing, are put by apposition in the 
same case. 

Rule 16. Any intransitive or passive verb may have 

* This is sometimes called the genitive case. 

t A participle supplying the place of a substantive, is styled a par- 
ticipial noun. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part L 

the same case after it as before it, when both words 
refer to the same thing. 

Miscellaneous Rules. 

Rule 17. Pronouns must always agree with their 
antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gen- 
der and number. The relative pronoun is of the same 
person with the antecedent. 

Rule 18. If there is no nominative between the 
relative and the verb, the relative is nominative case to 
the verb. When a nominative comes between the 
relative and the verb, the relative is governed by some 
word in its own member of the sentence. 

Rule 19. Every adjective, and every adjective pro- 
noun or participle used adjectively, belongs to some 
noun or pronoun expressed or understood. 

Rule 20. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, partici- 
ples, and other adverbs. They sometimes also qualify 
a preposition, and sometimes a phrase or whole sen- 
tence. 

Rule 21. Conjunctions connect the same moods 
and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns.* 

Rule 22. Two or more nouns, connected by a cop- 
ulative conjunction, require the words with which 
they agree to be plural. If connected by a disjunc- 
tive conjunction, the verb, noun, or pronoun, with which 
they agree, must be singular. 

Rule 23. A noun of multitude, or signifying many, 
has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either in the 
singular or plural number. 

Rule 24. The infinitive mood may be governed by 
a verb, noun, adjective, or participle f 

* To this rule there are some exceptions. See remarks on this rule, 
Part II. 

| It may also be governed by a conjunction, adverb, or preposition. 
See Part II. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PART II. 

Of Substantives, 

A substantive or noun is the name of a thing. The 
word noun means name. Pen, paper, chair, table, 
book, gratitude, truth, bravery, are nouns. Substan- 
tives or nouns are either proper or common. 

Proper substantives are names appropriated to indi- 
viduals without any reference to kind. George, Hen- 
ry, Charles, Edward, are of this class. Also names 
appropriated to particular places ; as Boston, New- 
York, Baltimore. These names have reference to no 
particular species of animals or things, but are used to 
designate particular individuals, or particular places ; 
and they are therefore called proper names. 

Common names or substantives are appropriated to 
kinds, or whole species, containing many individuals 
under them. Man, tree, bird, fish, are of this class. 
The term man has reference to no particular person, 
but to the human species, and may be applied to any 
individual pertaining to the species. So with tree, 
bird, or fish. These names stand for no particular 
objects, but may be applied to any one of the whole 
species;. There may be innumerable trees and innu- 
merable kinds of trees, yet the general name tree, may 
with equal propriety be applied to any one of them. 
All those names or nouns which are collected in die- 
2* 



IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part ll. 

tionaries, with definitions attached to them, are of the 
class called common nouns. 

When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common names; as, He is the 
Cicero of his age ; he is reading the lives of the twelve 
Cassars. 

Common names may also be used to signify individ- 
uals, by the addition of articles or pronouns ; as, The 
boy is studious ; that girl is discreet. 

Nouns may also be divided into the following classes ; 

Collective nouns or nouns of multitude : as, the peo- 
ple, the parliament, the army : abstract nouns, or the 
names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; 
as, knowledge, goodness, whiteness : verbal nouns ; as, 
lover, accuser, betrayer, beggar : participial nouns; as, 
beginning, understanding, hearing, writing. 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case. 

Substantives also admit of a second and third person. 
The person speaking, or first person, employs the pro- 
noun instead of the noun ; consequently nouns have no 
first person. They have two persons only ; and they 
are all of the third person when spoken of, and of the 
second when spoken to. Thus when we say, Children, 
obey your parents ; the noun children is the second 
person, because children are spoken to ; and the word 
parents is the third person, because they are spoken of. 
But change the expression and say, Parents, provoke 
not your children to wrath ; and the order of persons is 
changed. Parents, being spoken to, becomes the sec- 
ond ; and children, who are spoken of the third. So 
in all cases. When we speak of or about a thing, it 
is in the third person ; but when we speak to it, it is in 
the second. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. f9 

Gender. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard -to sex. 

There are three genders, the masculine, the femi- 
nine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male 
kind ; as, a man, a horse, an ox. 

The feminine gender signifies animals of the female 
kind ; as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither 
male nor female ; as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are by a figure 
of speech converted into the masculine or feminine 
gender; as, when we say of the sun, He is setti g ; and 
of a ship, She sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly 
give the masculine gender to nouns which are conspic- 
uous for the attributes of imparting nr communicating, 
and which are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, 
again, are made feminine, which are conspicuous for 
the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which 
are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these prin- 
ciples, the sun is said to be masculine ; and the moon 
being the receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. 
The earth is generally feminine ; a ship, a country, a 
city, he. are likewise made feminine, being receivers 
or containers. Time is always masculine on account 
of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its 
beauty, and its being the object of love. Fortune, and 
also the church, are generally put in the feminine 
gender. 

The English language has three methods of distin- 
guishing the sex, viz : 

1. By different words : as, 

Male. Female. 

Bachelor* Maid. 

Husband. Wife, &e.- 



2G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

2. By a difference of termination : as, 

Male. Female. 

Abbot. Abbess. 

Actor. Actress. &ic. 

3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed 
to the substantive : as, 

Mile. Female. 

A man-servant. A maid-servant. 

A he-goat. A she-goat. 

Male-descendants. Female-descendants, &tc. 

It sometimes happens that the same noun is either 
masculine or feminine. The words parent, child, 
cousin, friend, neighbour, servant, and several others, 
are used indifferently for males or females. 

Number. 

Number is a term which has reference to quantity, 
as consisting of one or more particulars or objects. 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and 
the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object ; as, 
a chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one; 
as, chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which 
they express, are used only in the singular form ; as, 
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in 
the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, 
deer, sheep, swine, &ic. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as, dove, doves; face, faces ; 
thought, thoughts. But when the substantive singular 
end* in x\ ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural ; 
as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, 
kisses ; rebus, rebuses, if the singular ends in eh 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 21 

hard, the plural is formed by adding s ; as, monarch, 
monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es added to 
the plural ; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto^ 
potato, volcano, wo; and sometimes only 5; as, folio, 
nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

Nouns ending in/; or fe, are rendered plural by the 
change of those terminations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves; 
half, halves ; wife, wives ; except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form the plural by the addi- 
tion of s. Those which end in j(f, have the regular plu- 
ral ; as, ruff, ruffs ; except staff, staves. 

Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other 
vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies in the 
plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is 
not changed when there is another vowel in the sylla- 
ble ; as key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the 
singular into e : as, man, men ; woman, women ; alder- 
man, aldermen. The words, ox and child, form oxen 
and children ; brother, makes either brothers, or breth- 
ren ; sometimes the dipthong 00 is changed into ee, in 
the plural ; as foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. 
Louse and mouse, make lice and mice. Penny makes 
pence; or pennies, when the coin is meant; die, dice 
(for play ;) die, dies (for coining.) 

It is agreeable to analogy and the practice of the gen- 
erality of correct writers, to construe the following 
words as plural nouns ; pains, riches, alms; and also 
mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneu- 
matics, with other similar names of sciences. 

The word news is now almost universally considered 
as belonging to the singular number. 

The noun means is used both in the singular and the 
plural number. 

Some words, derived from the learned languages, are 






22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

confined to the plural number : as, antipodes, literati, 
minutiae. 

The following words, being in Latin both singular 
and plural, are used in the same manner when adopted 
into our tongue : apparatus, series, species. 

Case. 

Case, is the slate or relation which the noun sustains- 
to the other words in the sentence. 

Substantives have three cases, viz : nominative, pos- 
sessive, and objective. 

The nominative expresses the name of a thing, ex- 
isting or acting as the subject of discourse. 

To nominate, means to name ; and hence the noun 
or pronoun which names or introduces a person or 
thing, as the subject of discourse or affirmation, is 
called the nominative case. The nominative usually 
denotes the agent or actor ; as, The dog barks ; The 
boy plays ; Men labor. But sometimes no action is 
implied ; as, I am, or I exist ; He sleeps ; They sit ; 
He is loved. In such cases the nominative denotes, 
not the agent or actor, but simply the person or thing 
existing, as the subject of what is affirmed or ex- 
pressed. 

The possessive case expresses the relation of prop- 
erty or possession, and in general has an apostrophe 
with the letter s coming after it ; as, The scholar's du- 
ty ; My father's house. 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but 
the apostrophe is retained : as, On eagles' wings ; The 
drapers' company. 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, 
the apostrophic s is not added : as, For goodness' 
sake ; For rightousness' sake. 

When the thing to which another is said to belong, is 
expressed by circumlocution, or by many terms, the 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 23 

sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the 
last term ; as, The king of Great Britain's dominions. 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possess- 
ive case, immediately succeed each other in the fol- 
lowing form ; My friend's wife's sister : a sense which 
would be better expressed by saying, The sister of my 
friend's wife ; or, my friend's sister-in-law. 

The objective case generally expresses the object of 
an action or relation ; and it is from this circumstance 
that it derives the name of objective case. It is the 
object on which some action terminates, or concerning 
which some relation is expressed ; as, He writes a let- 
ter ; They live in London. Here, letter and London 
are in the objective case ; the former is the object of an 
action, expressed by the transitive verb writes ; the lat- 
ter, of a relation, expressed by the preposition in. 
The objective commonly, but not uniformly, follows a 
transitive verb or a preposition; and may therefore be 
said, in general, to be the object of an action or rela- 
tion. It sometimes, however, follows an interjection, 
and is merely the object of passionate exclamation ; as, 
O me miserable ! 

Of Articles. 

An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 
them out and limit their signification; as, A garden ; 
an eagle ; the woman. 

There are two articles, a and the ; a usually becomes 
an before a vowel and silent h ; as, an acorn, an hour. 
Also when a word beginning with h is accented on the 
second syllable; as, an heroic action ; an historical ac- 
count. When words begin with u long, a takes the 
place of an; as, a university, a union. Also, before 
one ; as, many a one. A, or an, is styled the indefinite 
article, because it is used in an indefinite and vague 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part If. 

sense, to point out one single thing of a kind, or spe- 
cies ; as, Give me a book ; bring me an apple. 

The is styled the definite article, because it is used 
in a definite sense, to point out what particular thing or 
things are meant; as, Give me the book; bring me the 
apples. Both of the articles limit ihe signification of 
the nouns to which they are annexed ; but in a differ- 
ent manner. The indefinite article a, limits the noun 
with respect to its number. It requires the noun to 
which it is prefixed, to be in the singular number;* as, 
Give me a book. To say, Give me a books, it is easily- 
perceived, would be improper. 

Tiie definite article is applied indifferently to either 
the singular or plural number ; but it limits its subject, 
by designating the particular thing or things meant. 
Give me the book, or the apples ; i. e. some particular 
book, or particular apples referred to. It does not 
leave it at the option of the person who is bidden, to 
bring any book or apples he may choose, but the di- 
rection is limited to particulars, by the force of the 
article. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is gene- 
rally taken in its widest sense ; as, A candid temper is 
proper for man ; that is. for all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles, will 
be seen in the following examples : The son of a king 
— the son of the king — a son of the king. Each of 

• There appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the 
use of tiie adjectives,/eji- and many, (the latter chiefly with the word 
great before it) which, though joined with plural substantives, yet 
adiv.it of the singular article a ; as, a few men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which* the article has 
in these phrases; it means a small or great number, collectively 
taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. 
Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, or c thousand, is one 
whole number, an aggregate of many, collectively taken ; and there- 
fore still retains the article a, though joined as an adjective to* 
plural substantive ; as, « hundred years,6tc. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 25 

these three phrases has an entirely different meaning, 
through the different application of the articles a and 
the. 

Thou art a man, is a very general and harmless 
position ; but, Thou art the man, (as Nathan said to 
David) is an assertion capable of striking terror and 
remorse into the heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the 
different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, 
arts, metals, herbs, he. ; as, Prudence is commendable : 
falsehood is odious : anger ought to be avoided ; &c. 
It is not prefixed to a proper name, as Alexander, (be- 
cause that of itself denotes a determinate individual, or 
particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing 
a particular family ; as, He is a Howard, or of the 
family of the Howards : or, by way of eminence ; as. 
Every man is not a Newton. He has the courage of 
an Achilles : or when some noun is understood ; as, He 
sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia. 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which 
the article relates, it is placed between the article and 
the noun ; as, A good man, an agreeable woman ; the 
best friend. On some occasions, however, the adjec- 
tive precedes a or an ; as, Such a shame. As great a 
man as Alexander : Too careless an author. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to ad- 
verbs in the comparative or superlative degree; and its 
effect is, to mark the degree more strongly, and to 
define it more precisely : as, The more I examine 
it, the better I like it ; I like this the least of any. 

Of Adjectives, 
An adjective is a word added to a substantive to 
qualify it. The adjective qualifies the noun in differ- 
ent ways. Sometimes it is used to point out its kind ; 
as, An industrious man : a virtuous woman : a benevo- 
3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

lent mind. The adjective here expresses the kind or 
quality of the person or thing to which it refers. 
Sometimes it expresses a mere circumstance ; as, Dis- 
tant trees : yonder summit. Here the kind or quality 
of the objects referred to, is not expressed ; but merely 
the circumstance of their being at a distance. Some- 
times the adjective is used to give emphasis to the 
noun ; as, You are the particular person meant. The 
office here performed by the adjective particular, is 
more emphatically to point out the noun person; and 
it is in this sense, it qualifies it. 

The pronoun that, when prefixed to a substantive, 
performs a similar office ; as, That man is industrious. 
That, as here used, has the situation and force of an 
adjective ; and may be called a pronominal adjective, 
Ir is " a word added to a substantive, to qualify it" 
by pointing it out, and fitting it to sustain, in a proper 
manner, its office in the sentence. [See note to the 
definition of " qualify," Parti.] 

To adjectives, there are commonly ascribed three 
degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, 
and the superlative.* 

The positive degree presents the adjective in its sim- 
plest state ; as, Good, wise, great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the 
positive in signification ; as, Wiser, greater, less wise. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the sig- 

* Grammarians have generally enumerated these three degrees of 
comparison ; but the first of them has been thought by some writers 
to be improperly termed a degree of comparison ; as it seems to be 
nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and not to 
imply either comparison or degree. This opinion may be well 
founded, unless the adjective be supposed to imply comparison or 
degree, by containing a secret or general reference to other things : 
as, when we say, He is a tall man ; this is a fair day, we make some 
reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different kinds of 
weather. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 27 

nification of the positive, to the highest or lowest de- 
gree ; as, Wisest, greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, or positive, becomes the compara- 
tive, by adding r or er ; and the superlative, by adding 
st or est to the end of it ; as, Wise, wiser, wisest : great, 
greater, greatest. The adverbs more and most, placed 
before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Wise, 
more wise, most wise. 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort 
a degree of comparison, by which the signification is 
diminished below the positive ; as, Black, blackish, or 
tending to blackness : salt, saltish, or having a little 
taste of salt. The word rather, is very properly used 
to express a small degree of excess of a quality ; as, 
She is rather profuse in her expenses. 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er 
and est ; and dissyllables by more and most ; as, Mild, 
milder, mildest : frugal, more frugal, most frugal. Dis- 
syllables ending in y, as, happy, lovely; and in le after 
a mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the last sylla- 
ble, as, discreet, polite; easily admit of er and est; 
as, Happier, happiest : abler, ablest : politer, politest. 
Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit 
of these terminations. In some words the superlative 
is formed by adding the adverb most to the end of 
them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, 
uppermost, foremost. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express 
the same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. 
Thus the sentence, Of all acquirements, virtue is the 
most valuable, conveys the same sentiment as the fol- 
lowing : Virtue is more valuable than every other ac- 
quirement. In English, as in most languages, there are 
some words of very common use that are irregular in 
respect to comparison ; as, Good, better, best : bad, 
worse, worst : little, less, least : much or many, more, 



2S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

most : near, nearer, nearest or next : late, later, latest 
or last : old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ; and a 
few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive, with the defi- 
nite article before it, becomes a substantive in sense 
and meaning, and is written as a substantive ; as, Prov- 
idence rewards the good, and punishes the bad. 

Various nouns, placed before other nouns, assume 
the nature of adjectives ; as, Sea fish, wine vessel, corn 
field, meadow ground, he. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal; 
cardinal, as, one, two, three, &ic. ; ordinal, as, first, 
second, third, &cc. 

Of Pronouns. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, The 
man is happy; ke is benevolent ; he is useful. 

The particle pro, means for, or instead of. The 
literal definition of pronoun, then, is a word used in- 
stead of a noun. Its use, as expressed above, is to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. 
Thus, had we no pronouns in the language, instead of 
saying, The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is 
useful ; we should be under the necessity of repeating 
the noun in every succeeding member of the sentence ; 
as, The man is happy ; the man is benevolent ; the 
man is useful. Cases would frequently occur, in which 
the repetition would be still more disagreeable. The 
following may serve as an example : John attends well 
to his studies; he is a good boy; he will soon get his 
lesson, and be ready to recite it to his instructer. This 
sentence, had we no pronouns, would be expressed 
thus: John attends well to John's studies ; John is a 
good boy ; John will soon gpt John's lesson, and be 
ready to recite it to John's instructer. From these ex- 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 29 

am pies, it is easy to see the importance of the pro- 
noun. 

There are three kinds of pronouns, viz ; the Person^ 
al, Relative, and Adjective Pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz ; I, thou or 
you, he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gen- 
der, and case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, 
viz. 

1 is the first person } 

Thou or you is the second person \ Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person ) 

We is the first person } 

Ye or You, is the second person >Pljral* 

They is the third person ) 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, 
when we reflect that there are three persons who may 
be the subject of discourse ; first, the person who 
speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak 
of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, 
he may speak of some other person ; and as the speak- 
ers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spok- 
en of, may be many, so each of these persons must 
have the plural number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, 
are two, the singular and the plural; as, J, thou or you, 
he ; we, ye or you, they. 

The gender of pronouns has respect only to the 
third person singular, he, she, it. He is masculine ; 
she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking, and spoken to, being at the 
same time the subjects of the discourse are supposed 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Part H. 



to be present ; from which, and other circumstances, 
their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be 
marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns : 
but the third person, or thing spoken of, being absent, 
and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it 
should be marked by a distinction of gender : accord- 
ingly the pronoun singular of the third person has the 
three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a 
form different from that of the nominative or the pos- 
sessive case. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 



Person. 



First. 



Second. 



Third, 
Mnsc 



Third, 
Femin. 

Third, 
Neuter. 



Case. 

Norn. 

Foss. 

Obj. 
( JVom. 
) foss. 
I Obj. 

JYom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 
C Nom. 
< Poss. 
I Obj. 
C Nom. 
I Poss. 

I obj. 



Singular. 

Mine. 

Me. 

Thou or you. 

Thine or yours. 

Thee or you. 

He. 



His. 
Him. 

She. 

Hers. 

Her. 

It. 

Its. 

It. 

Of Relative Pronouns. 
Relative Pronouns are such, in general, as relate to 
some word or phrase going before, which on this ac- 
count is called the antecedent. Antecedent means 
going before. The noun or pronoun, therefore, that 



Plural. 

We. 

Ours. 
Us. 

Ye or you. 

Yours. 

You. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 31 

goes before the relative, and for which the relative 
stands, and to which it refers, is its antecedent ; as, 
The man is happy who lives virtuously. Here, man is 
the antecedent oi who. 

Relative pronouns are sometimes used interroga- 
tively ; they have then no antecedent, but refer to 
something subsequent ; as, Who gave you those books ? 
Charles. Here, the name Charles, to which the rela- 
tive refers, instead of going before comes after it, or is 
subsequent to it. 

The relatives are who, which, thai, what, and, some- 
times, as. 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and 
inanimate things ; as, He is a friend, who is faithful in 
adversity : The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown : 
This is the tree, which produces no fruit. 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both 
the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equiva- 
lent to that which ; as, This is what I wanted ; that i& 
to say, the thing which 1 wanted. 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too 
frequent repetition of who and xohich. It is applied to 
both persons and things ; as, He that acts wisely de- 
serves praise : Modesty is a quality that highly adorns 
a woman. 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular and Plural. 
Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Whfch, that, and what are likewise of both numbers, 
but they do not vary in their termination ; except that 
whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of 
which ; as, 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Part II. 



• The fruit 



Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death," &c. 



-" Pure was the joy without alloy, 



Whose very rapture is tranquillity." 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for 
three ; as, Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in 
the knowledge of nature ; for, Philosophy, the end of 
which is to instruct us, &c. 

Who, which, and what have sometimes the words 
soever and ever annexed to them ; as, ivhosoever or 
whoever, whichsoever or whichever, whatsoever or whaU 
ever. 

The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a 
demonstrative pronoun, sometimes a pronominal adjec- 
tive, and sometimes a conjunction. Jt is a relative 
when it may be turned into who or which, without de- 
stroying the sense ; as, They that [who] reprove us, may 
be our best friends : From every thing that [which] 
you see, derive instruction. It is a demonstrative pro- 
noun, when it supplies the place of a noun ; as, That 
is the article I wished for : That is the person for 
whom you inquired. It is a pronominal adjective when 
joined to a noun to qualify it ; as, That hoy is indus- 
trious : That book belongs to me : That person is one 
of high rank. It is a conjunction when it joins senten- 
ces together, and cannot be turned into who or which, 
without destroying the sense ; as, Take care that every 
day be well employed : I hope he will believe that I 
have not acted improperly. 

As is sometimes a relative ; sometimes an adverb ; 
sometimes a conjunction ; and sometimes a preposition. 
It is a relative, when it supplies the place of a noun to 
which it refers ; as, Let such as advise others, look 
well to themselves; that is, Let those persons uho 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 33 

advise, he. It is an adverb, when it means when, or 
in the manner ; as, They saluted him as he passed by ; 
i. e. when he passed by : He performed the service as 
he was commanded ; i. e. in the manner he was com- 
manded. It is a preposition, when it may be changed 
into for, or in the character of; as, Caesar was distin- 
guished as an orator and statesman, but still more so as 
a general. 

Who, which, and what are called interrogates 
when they are used in asking questions; as, Who is 
he ? Which is the book ? What art thou doing ? 

Whether was formerly made use of to signify inter- 
rogation ; as, Whether of these shall I choose ? but it 
is now seldom used, the interrogative which being sub- 
stituted in its stead. 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a 
separate kind of pronouns ; but they are too nearly 
related to the relative pronouns, both in nature and 
form, to render such a division necessary. They do 
not in fact lose the character of relatives, when they 
become interrogatives. The only difference is, that 
without an interrogation the relatives have reference to 
a subject which is antecedent, definite, and known ; 
with an interrogation, to a subject which is subsequent, 
indefinite, and unknown, and which it is expected the 
answer will express and ascertain. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, partici- 
pating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives, 
and may be divided into four sorts ; viz. the possessive, 
the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

The possessive are those which relate to possession 
or property. They are my, thy, his, her, our, your, 
their. Whose and its, when joined to substantives, 
may, perhaps, be considered as possessive pronouns, 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

as well as the possessive case of the pronouns from 
which they are derived. 

Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly- 
used before a substantive or adjective beginning with a 
vowel or a silent h ; as, Blot out all mine iniquities. 

The pronouns his, mine and thine, have the same 
form, whether they are possessive pronouns, or the 
possessive cases of their respective personal pronouns; 
but they may be distinguished in the following man- 
ner : — When connected with the noun in the form of an 
adjective, as, Jiine iniquities, His virtues ; they are 
possessive pronouns ; but when separated from the 
noun, as, This desk is mine, That book is his ; they 
are the possessive cases of pronouns. 

Mine and thine seem to be a contraction of my own 
and thy own. These pronouns as well as the corres- 
ponding ones, yours, ours, Sic. have two cases; as, 
Lend me your knife ; mine is not in order. Here the 
word mine, sustains two different states or relations to 
the other words in the sentence, and therefore has two 
distinct cases* It implies property or possession, and 
is therefore in the possessive case ; it supplies the place 
of a substantive, and constitutes the subject of the verb, 
and is therefore in the nominative case. It sustains two 
relations as evidently as it does one. Let the express- 
ion be varied — My knife is not in order, lend me yours. 
Here yours implies property or possession, and is in 
the possessive case. It is also the object of an action ; 
it is the word on which the transitive verb lend termi- 
nates, and it is therefore in the objective case. To see 
the impropriety of governing yours by knife under- 
stood, (as grammarians have been accustomed to do,) 
we need only write the sentence as it would stand with 

* The definition of case, it will be recollected, is the state or rela- 
tion which the noun or pronoun sustains to the other words in the 
sentence. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 35 

knife expressed ; as, Lend me yours knife ; or lend me 
knife of you. This would be awkward in the extreme. 
Yet it can be parsed in no better way, unless we either 
give to the pronoun in this situation, two cases, or alter 
its termination. 

Own, added to the possessive, renders it emphatical, 
and implies a silent contrariety or opposition ; as, 1 
live in my own house ; that is, not in a hired house. 

Self is added to possessives ; as, myself, yourselves : 
and sometimes to personal pronouns, as, himself itself 
themselves. It then, like own, expresses emphasis and 
opposition ; as, I did this myself ; that is, not another : 
or it forms a reciprocal pronoun ; as, tie hurt ourselves 
by vain rage. 

Himself and themselves, are now used in the nomina- 
tive case, instead of hisself theirselves ; as, He came 
himselj : He himselj shall do this: They performed it 
themselves. 

The distributive pronouns are ihose which denote 
the persons or things that make up a number, as laken 
separately and singly. They are each, every, either ; 
as, Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation : 
Every man must account for himself: 1 have not seen 
either of them. 

Each relates to two or more persons or thing?, and 
signifies either of the two, or every one of any number, 
taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signi- 
fies each one of them all, laken separately. This pro- 
noun was formerly used apart from its noun, but it is 
now constantly annexed to it, except in legal proceed- 
ings ; as in the phrase, " all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things, taken sepa- 
rately, and signifies the one or the other. To asy, 
Either of the three, is therefore improper. 

Neither is a compound pronoun ; it imports not 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. > [Part II. 

either ; that is, not one nor the other : as, Neither of 
my friends was there. Either and neither are cor- 
responding conjunctions when they do not supply the 
place of nouns, and have no reference to them ; as, I 
will either go myself or send a messenger : He will 
neither borrow nor lend. 

The de?nonstrative pronouns are those which pre- 
cisely point out the subjects to which they relate ; this 
and that, these and those, are of this class ; as, This is 
true charity ; that is only its image. 

This indicates the latter or last mentioned thing ; 
that the former or first mentioned ; as, Both wealth 
and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite 
pride, this, discontent. 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be prop- 
erly ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns ; 
especially in many of their applications. The follow- 
ing sentence may serve as an example : It was happy 
for the state that Fabius continued in the command 
with Minucius; {he former's phlegm, was a check upon 
the latter's vivacity. 

The indefinite pronouns are those which express 
their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. 
The following are of this kind : some, other, any, ojie, 
all, such, &ic. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are 
varied. One has a possessive case, which it forms in 
the same manner as substantives ; as, one, one's. This 
word has a general signification, meaning people at 
large; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the 
person who is speaking ; as, One ought to pity the 
distresses of mankind : One is apt to love one's self. 
This word is often used by good writers in the plural 
number ; as, The great onrs of the world : The boy 
wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones: My 
wife and the little ones are in good health. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 37 

Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Other. Others. 

Poss. Other's. Others'. 

Obj. Other. Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the 
noun to which it refers, whether expressed or under- 
stood ; as, When you have perused these papers, I will 
send you the others : He pleases some, but he disgusts 
others. When the pronoun is joined to nouns, either 
singular or plural, it has no variation ; as, The other 
man, the other men. 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the 
indefinite pronouns ; Some of you are wise and good : 
A few of them were idle, the others industrious : Nei- 
ther is there any that is unexceptionable : One ought 
to know one's own mind : They were all present : 
Such is the state of man that he is never at rest i 
Some were happy, while others were miserable. 

The word another is composed of the indefinite ar- 
ticle prefixed to the word other. 

One another is used as a kind of compound pronoun, 
including both of the preceding terms; as, Charles and 
Eliza were jealous of one another ; that is, They were 
mutually jealous one of the other. The word one may 
refer to either of the preceding terms, taken separately, 
and is in the nominative case. Another may also re- 
fer to either of the preceding terms taken separately, 
and is in the objective case. As, They were jealous ; 
one, viz. Charles, was jealous of the other, {Eliza.) 
Or, one, viz. Eliza, was jealous of the other, (Charles.) 
Thus, one another include both nouns, and each may 
refer to either of the preceding terms ; yet each of 
them, like the compound relative what, has a distinct 
case. 

4 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Both is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjec- 
tive, and sometimes a conjunction. In the following 
sentence it is used as a pronoun : The two brothers 
were both arrested, and both were found guilty. Here, 
both in the first instance is used for the sake of empha- 
sis, and put in apposition with the noun brothers. In 
the second instance it supplies the place of the noun. 
It is used as an adjective in the following passages : 
Both parties were present ; both cases were decided. 
In the sentence which follows, it is a conjunction : It 
is for ones interest both here and hereafter, to live vir- 
tuously. When used as a conjunction, this word, like 
several other conjunctions, has some of the properties 
of an adverb, and serves, in a sense, to qualify the sen- 
tence in which it stands. 

None is used in both numbers ; as, None is so deaf 
as he that will not hear : None of those are equal to 
these. It seems originally to have signified, according 
to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had no 
plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in 
the plural number; " JVone that go unto her, return 
again." Prov. j^. 19. "Terms of peace were none 
vouchsafed. " Milton. 

The distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pro- 
nouns, when joined to substantives to which they relate, 
take the nature of adjectives ; as, This book is instruc- 
tive : Each object was accomplished : Some boys are 
ingenious : All men are liable to err. This, each, &ic. 
as here used, are adjectives, and may properly be styled 
pronominal adjectives. 

Of Verbs. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
suffer ; as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. Here, am is a 
verb, signifying to be, or to exist; rule is a verb, signi- 
fying to do, or to act ; am ruled is a verb, signifying to 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 39 

suffer, or to be the recipient of an action performed by 
another. 

Verbs are of three kinds ; transitive, intransitive, and 
passive. They are also divided into regular, irregular, 
and defective. 

A transitive verb is one which passes over from the 
agent or subject, and terminates on some object; as, 
Men build houses : Fire consumes wood. Transitive 
means passing, or having the power to pass from one 
object to another ; and therefore verbs which have this 
. property, are denominated transitive verbs. 

Intransitive verbs are those which do not pass over 
and terminate on an object, but whose being or action 
is confined to the subject or actor ; as, Birds fly ; I sit ; 
They muse. Intransitive is the negative, or opposite, 
of transitive; and it is therefore applied to all that class 
of verbs which have no effect beyond their agents. 

A passive verb expresses passion, or suffering, or the 
receiving of an action ; as, the horse is seen ; the dog 
was beaten ; the men were punished. To be passive, in 
the sense in which the term is here used, is to be made 
the subject of an impression from some external cause ; 
to be acted upon ; to be made the receiver of action 
from another. The horse is seen; i. e. seen by some 
person. The dog was beaten ; i. e. beaten by some 
individual. Thus, although the passive verb implies 
action, its action does not (like that of transitive verbs) 
pass from its agent, or subject, to some object ; but on 
the contrary, the action originates in the object, and 
terminates on the agent, or nominative case. When 1 
say, The scholar ivas instructed by me ; although 
scholar is the subject of the verb, and forms its nomi- 
native case, yet the action which the verb expresses 
was not performed by scholar, but by another person. 
The verb's nominative is not the doer of the action, but 
the receiver of it. The action terminates on the nomin- 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

ative, instead of the objective case. This is the grand 
distinction between transitive and passive verbs. The 
action of the transitive verb passes from the agent to 
some object, styled the objective case ; the action of the 
passive verb passes from some noun or pronoun in the 
objective case expressed or undersiood, and terminates 
on the agent, or nominative case. The nominative case 
to a transitive verb is the doer of an action to another ; 
the nominative case to a passive verb, is the receiver of 
an action from another. This distinction is too obvious 
to be easily mistaken. 

Nearly all transitive verbs imply action, and may 
therefore be styled in general active verbs. But there 
are some exceptions ; as, 1 have a house : I own a farm. 
In instances like these, no action is expressed ; yet the 
verb is transitive, and governs the following word in 
the objective case. 

Intransitives comprehend a large proportion of the 
active verbs, many of which imply action in the very 
highest degree ; as, The fox leaps : Fishes sivim : Horses 
run : Birds fly These verbs, although they imply a 
high degree of action, are neither transitive nor passive ; 
they are not transitive, because they do not pass from 
the agent to any object ; they are not passive, because 
they do not imply the receiving of an action from an- 
other ; but simply action whose effect is confined to the 
agent. 

Many verbs are used both transitively and intransi- 
tively, their connexion only determining of which kind 
they are ; as, To flatten, signifying to make level or 
even, is a verb transitive ; but when it signifies to grow 
dull, or insipid, it is intransitive. 

An intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, 
may become a compound transitive verb. To smile, is 
an intransitive verb. It cannot be followed by an ob- 
jective case, or be changed into a passive verb. We 



Part II.] etymology. 41 

cannot say, She smiled him ; or He was smiled. But 
add the preposition on, and it becomes a compound 
transitive verb. We may properly say; She smiled on 
him ; or, convert it into a passive verb and say, He was 
smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 

Intransitives which merely imply being, or a state of 
being ; as, 1 am, he sleeps, he. may be called neuter 
verbs. 

Verbs are called regular, when they form their im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of erf; 
or d, when the verb ends in e ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

I favor. I favored. Favored. 
I love. I loved. Loved. 

Irregular verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense and their perfect participle by the ad- 
dition of d or ed to the verb ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

I begin. I began. Begun. 
1 know. 1 knew. Known. 

Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of the moods and tenses, and have no participles^ 
The principal of them are these; May, can, ivill, shall, 
must, ought, might, could, would, should, quoth. 

All these are used as auxiliaries to other verbs, ex- 
cept ought and quoth. 

Ought is made to convey both a present and past 
signification ; its tense being determined by the infini- 
tive mood, by which it is always followed. When fol- 
lowed by a present infinitive, ought is in the present 
tense ; as, He ought to go, and when followed by the 
infinitive perfect, ought is in the imperfect tense ; as, He 
ought to have gone. 
4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Quoth is seldom used ; and then only in the first and 
third persons singular of the imperfect tense. 

Auxiliaries, or helping verbs, are those, by the help 
of which the English verbs are principally conjugated. 
They are, do, be, have, shall, will may, can, with their 
variations ; and let and must, which, as auxiliaries, 
have no variation.* 

To verbs belong number, person, mood and tense. 

The number and person of verbs always correspond 
with the nouns or pronouns with which they agree. 

In philosophical strictness, both number and person 
might be entirely excluded from every verb. They 
are in fact the properties of substantives, not a part of 
the verb. The terms number and person, as applied 
to the verb, are figurative. The properties which be- 
long to one thing, for convenience' sake are ascribed to 
another. Verbs in some of their forms are used, in 
general, with nouns or pronouns of the plural number; 
such, by a figure of speech, are called plural verbs. 
There are other forms of the verb which always re- 
quire the nouns or pronouns with which they agree, to 
be in the singular number ; these are called singular 
verbs. But the distinction arises not from the nature 
of the verb, but altogether from the noun or pronoun 
with which it is associated. 

Mood or mode is a particular form which the verb 
assumes to express different states of the mind, and 
different circumstances of being and action. 

There are five moods of verbs ; the indicative, the 
Imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the infin- 
itive. 

The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing ; as, He loves, he is loved ; or it asks a question ; 
as, Does he love 2 Is he loved f 

* Let. as a principal verb, has httest and htteth. 






Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 43 

The Imperative mood is used for commanding, ex- 
horting, entreating, or permitting ; as, Depart thou ; 
mind ye ; let us stay ; go in peace. 

Though this mood derives its name from its intima- 
tion of command, it is used on occasions of a very op- 
posite nature ; even in the most humble supplications 
of an inferior being, to one who is infinitely his supe- 
rior; as, " Give us this day our daily bread ; and for- 
give us our trespasses." 

The Potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, or obligation ; as, It may rain : he may 
go or stay : I can ride : he would walk : they should 
learn. 

The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under a 
condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. and is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb ; as, 1 will respect him, 
though he chide me : Were he good, he would be hap- 
py ; that is, if he were good. 

The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general 
and unlimited manner, without any distinction of num- 
ber or person ; as, To act, to speak, to be feared. 

The Participle is a certain form of the verb, and de- 
rives its name from its participating, not only of the 
properties of a verb, but also those of an adjective and 
noun ; as, Admired and applauded, he became vain : 
Having finished his work, he submitted it : Charles has 
become weary with writing so long a letter. 

There are three participles, the present, the perfect, 
and the compound perfect; as, ruling, ruled, having 
ruled. 

The Present Participle signifies imperfect action, or 
action begun and not ended ; as, I am writing a letter. 

The Perfect or Past Participle signifies action per- 
fected or finished ; as, I have written a letter. 

The Compound Perfect also signifies action that is 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

finished ; as, Having written the letter, he despatch- 
ed it. 

When the verb to be, in any of its variations, is join- 
ed to the participle ; as, 1 am writing, 1 was writing, 
I might be writing, I shall be ivriting, &c. the par- 
ticiple may be considered the principal verb. The 
verb to be is only an auxiliary, and merely direct- the 
mood and tense. The meaning and essence of the 
verb is found in what is styled the participle ; whence 
it is evident that the participle is not a distinct part of 
speech, but only a " form of the verb." 

Participles, when joined to nouns merely to qualify 
them, become adjectives ; as, a ruling passion ; a lov- 
ing child. 

Participles may be distinguished from adjectives, by 
their being capable of variations to express distinction 
of time ; as, A parent, ruling well his house, secures 
respect. Ruling is here a participle, because it is ca- 
pable of being varied to express a different tense ; as, 
A parent having ruled well his house, he. But when 
we say, A ruling passion ; or, a moving spectacle ; the 
words ruling and moving, although in the participial 
form, cannot be thus varied, and are therefore adjec- 
tives. Such words may properly be called participial 
adjectives. 

Participles sometimes supply the place of nouns ; as, 
By refusing to confess his crime, he rncurred greater 
censure. Refusing supplies the place of a noun in the 
objective. The idea is, by a refusal to confess, &cc. 
By acknowledging his fault, he might have been restor- 
ed to favour. Here acknowledging not only supplies 
the place of a noun in the objective case, but governs 
another objective. In the following sentence, the par- 
ticiple supplies the place of a noun in the nominative 
case : His riding on horseback proved of great service. 
Participles thus used, virtually become nouns, and may 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 45 

be called participial nouns, as they still retain some of 
the properties of the verb. 

The participle going is often used figuratively, in 
connexion with the infinitive mood, to imply a tenden- 
cy or disposition of the mind ; as, I am going to speak : 
I am going to write : I am going to sleep. This form 
of expression resembles what is called the future infin- 
itive in Latin, and some grammarians have styled it a 
future tense. But in sentences like these, there are 
evidently two verbs, as well as two distinct moods. 
The indicative mood, " I am going," is in the present 
tense,, and governs the infinitive. It is a figurative ex- 
pression, as used in the above examples, and has refer- 
ence to a tendency of the mind to do what is expressed 
by the following infinitive, i. e. to speak, to write, or to 
sleep. To go, in the literal use of the term, relates to 
the movements of the body, or of some visible sub- 
stance ; but by a figure of speech, it is, in these famil- 
iar expressions, applied to the operations or volitions 
of the mind. And considered in this light, it is as 
evidently a present tense, as the expression, I expect, 
or 1 intend, to do a thing. There is indeed a reference 
to futurity, but this is no more than is true in many 
other cases, when a verb in the present tense is imme- 
diately followed by another in the infinitive mood. 

Tense, or time, is made to consist of six variations ; 
viz ; the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluper- 
fect, and the first and second future. 

The Present tense represents the action or event as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned; as, I 
rule : I am ruled : I think : 1 fear. 

It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with 
occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, He 
frequently rides : He walks out every morning : He 
goes into the country every summer. We sometimes 
apply this tense even to persons long since dead ; as. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part it. 

Seneca reasons and moralises well : Job speaks feel- 
ingly of his afflictions. 

The present tense, preceded by the words when, be- 
fort, after, as soon as, he. is sometimes used to point 
out the relative time of a future action ; as, When he 
arrives he will hear the news ; He will hear the news 
before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at the 
farthest, soon after he arrives. The more she im- 
proves, the more amiable she will be. 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is some- 
times substituted for the imperfect tense ; as, " He en- 
ters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights 
and conquers, takes an immense booty, which lie divides 
amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an 
empty triumph." 

The Imperfect tense represents the action or event 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at 
a certain time past; as, I loved her for her modesty and 
virtue : They were travelling post when he met them. 

The Perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but 
always conveys an allusion to the present time ; as, 1 
have finished my letter : I have seen the person that 
was recommended to me. 

In the former example, it is signified that the finish- 
ing of the letter, though past, was at a period immedi- 
ately, or very nearly, preceding the present time. In 
the latter instance, it is uncertain whether the person 
mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time 
before. The meaning is, 1 have seen him some time 
in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, 
the present time. When the particular time of any 
occurrence is specified as prior to the present time, 
this tense is not used ; for it would be improper to say, 
I have seen him yesterday ; or, 1 have finished my 
work last week. In these cases the imperfect is nec- 
issary ; as, I saw him yesterday : i finished my work 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 41 

last week. But when we speak indefinitely of any- 
thing past, as happening, or not happening, in the day, 
year, or age, in which we mentioned it, the perfect 
must be employed ; as, I have been there this morn- 
ing : 1 have travelled much this year : We have escaped 
many dangers through life. In referring, however, to 
such a division of the day as is past before the time of 
our speaking, we use the imperfect ; as, They came 
home this morning : He was with them this afternoon. 
In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever 
the action is connected with the present time, by 
the actual existence either of the author or of the 
work, though it may have been performed many cen- 
turies ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now 
remains, it cannot be used. We may say, Cicero has 
written orations ; but we cannot say, Cicero has writ- 
ten poems ; because the orations are in being, but the 
poems are lost. 

The Pluperfect tense represents a thing not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time spec- 
ified in the sentence ; as, 1 had finished my letter be- 
fore he arrived. 

The First Future tense represents the action as yet to 
come, either with or without respect to the precise time 
when ; as, The sun will rise tomorrow : I shall see 
them again. 

The Second Future intimates that the action will be 
fully accomplished at or before the time of another fu- 
ture action or event; as, I shall have dined at one 
o'clock : The two houses will have finished their busi- 
ness, when the king comes to prorogue them. 

The present, past, and future tenses, may be used 
either definitely or indefinitely, both with respect to 
time and actioa-. When they denote customs or habits, 
and not individual acts, they are applied indefinitely; 
as, Virtue promotes happiness : The old Romans gov- 



48 BNGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

erned by benefits more than by fear : I shall hereafter 
employ my time more usefully. In these examples, 
the words promotes, governed, and shall employ, are 
used indefinitely, both in regard to action and time; 
for they are not confined to individual actions, nor to 
any precise points of present, past, or future time. 
When they are applied to signify particular actions, and 
to ascertain the precise points of time to which they 
are confined, they are used definitely ; as in the follow- 
ing instances : My brother is writing : He built the 
house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday : 
He will write another letter tomorrow. 

The conjugation of the verbs To Be and To Have. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
and tenses. 

The verb to be is conjugated as follows : 

To Be. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art, or you are. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He, she. or it is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural.' 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2 Thou wast, or you were. 2. Ye or }'ou were. 
3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1 We have heen. 

2. Thou hast been, or you 2. Ye or yon have been. 

have been. 3. 'i hey have been. 

3. He hath or has been. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 49 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1« I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been, or you 2. Ye or you had been. 

had been. 3. They had been. 

3. He had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

or you shall or will be. be. 

3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

■ Singular. Plural. 

i. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been, or 2. Ye or you shall have 

you will have been. been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou or do thou be, 2. Be ye or you, or do ye 
or be you or do you be. 

be. 

Grammarians have generally ascribed to the impera- 
tive mood three persotis ; as, first person, Let me b ; 
second person, Be thou, he. ; third person, Let him 
be ; with their plurals, Let us be, Let them be, Sic. But 
the imperative in such cases belongs merely to the 
word let ; and in every instance the command is ad- 
dressed to the second person, not to the first or third. 
For when it is said, Let me be; Let him or let them 
be; the meaning and construction are, do thou, or do 
ye let me, him, or them be. The imperative expresses 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

a command, exhortation, or entreaty to a second per- 
son, and the person addressed constitutes the verb's 
nominative. It is therefore always of the second per- 
son ; and as we cannot command in past or future time, 
it is always of the present tense. The nominative to a 
verb in this mood, is generally understood ; as, Go and 
tell those children to come in, i. e. go thou, or go ye, 
and tell them : Come and recite ; i. e. Come thou or 
you, or come ye, and recite. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be, 2. Ye or you may or can 

or you may or can be. be. 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be. or should be. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or you 2. Ye or you might, could, 

might, could, would, or would, or should be. 

should he. 3. They might, could, would, 

3. He might, could, would, or should be. 

or should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 

have been, or you may have been. 

or can have been. 3. They may or can have 

3. He may or can have been. 

been. 

* This form of the verb is often used in the present and future 
tenses, as well as imperfect. See note to this tense in Part I. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 51 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have been. or should have been. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or you 2. Ye or you might, could, 

might, could, would, or would, or should have 

should have been. been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have been. or should have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. — First Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am. 1. If we are. 

2. If thou art, or if you are. 2. If ye or } r ou are. 

3. If he is. 3. If they are. 

Present Tense. — Second Form. 

Singular. Plural 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be, or if you be. 2. If ye or you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Present Tense. — Third Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert, or if you 2. if ye or yo\\ were. 

were. 3. If they were. 

3. If he were. 

In the subjunctive imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first 
future, and second juture, the verb is conjugated just as 
it is in those tenses of the indicative mood, except that 
ivill and wilt are not used in the subjunctive second fu- 
ture, and that a conjunction is added implying doubt or 
condition. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II, 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 

Compound -perfect Having been. 

To the subjunctive present, we have given three dis- 
tinct forms. The manner in which these several forms 
are used, may be seen in the following illustration : If 
I am not deceived, he is a worthy man ; if it be found 
otherwise, I shall be greatly disappointed ; if I were 
you, I would not hesitate to employ him. Here, am, 
be, and were, are all in the present tense. In the 
first example, the verb retains its indicative form, be- 
cause, although condition or doubt is expressed, no 
reference is made to futurity. The idea is not, if 1 am 
not to be deceived hereafter, but if I am not now de- 
ceived. The form of the verb, therefore, undergoes no 
change from its simplest state. In the second example, 
the verb is changed into be, because not only doubt is 
expressed, but reference is made to futurity. If it be 
found otherwise ; i. e. if it shall hereafter be found 
otherwise. In the third example, the verb is changed 
into were, because not only condition or supposition is 
expressed, but the verb that follows it is in the poten- 
tial mood, which in general will not associate with this 
verb, in either of the other forms. Thus, in the exam- 
ple last given, we cannot say, If I am you, he. nor If I 
be you ; but we must say, as in the third form, If 1 were 
you, 1 would not hesitate 

Mr. Lindley Murray, in exhibiting the opinions of dif- 
ferent grammarians on this subject, notices a theory which 
bears a near resemblance to the one here adopted. Af- 
ter formally stating three different opinions, he remarks 



Parr II.] ETYMOLOGY. 53 

— " We may add a fourth opinion, which appears to 
possess at least much plausibility. This opinion admits 
the arrangement we have given (i. e. the arrangement 
given in Murray's Grammar,) with one variation, name- 
ly, that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, 
two forms : 1st, that which simply denotes contingen- 
cy ; as, If he desires it, I will perform the operation ; 
that is, if he now desires it : secondly, that which de- 
notes both contingency and futurity: as, If he desire it, 
I will perform the operation ; that is. If he should here- 
after desire it. This last theory of the subjunctive 
mood, claims the merit of rendering the whole system 
of the moods consistent and regular; of being more 
conformable than any other to the definition of the sub- 
juncti.e; and of not referring to the indicative mood 
forms of expression, which ill accord with its simplicity 
and nature." 

This theory we deem correct as far as it extends ; 
but we consider the addition of another form to the 
present subjunctive of the verb to be an improvement j 
since neither ol the two forms specified above will in 
general associate with a verb in the potential mood. 
To other verbs we have given two forms only of this 
tense. 

For the information of learners, it may be proper to 
make a ew remarks in this place relative to the appli- 
cation of some of the auxiliaries, Sec. The first is, that 
shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, 
or promise, may be considered, as well as their varia- 
tions should and would', as belonging to the potential 
mood. But as they generally signify futurity, they 
have been appropriated, as helping verbs, to the forma- 
tion of the future tenses of the indicative and subjunc- 
tive moods. 

The next remark is, that the auxiliary will cannot be 
correctly applied to the first person, in the second future 
5* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

tense of transitive verbs ; nor the auxiliary shall to 
the second and third peison. The impropriety of such 
associations may be inferred from a few examples : I 
will have had previous notice whenever the event hap- 
pens : Thou shalt have served thy apprenticeship be- 
fore the end of the year; He shall have completed his 
business when the messenger arrives. / shall have 
had ; thou wilt have served ; he will have completed, &c. 
would be correct and applicable. 

Another remark is, that as the indicative mood is con- 
verted into the subjunctive, by the expression of a con- 
dition, motive, wish, supposition, he. being superadded 
to it ; so the potential mood may in like manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen in the fol- 
lowing examples: If I could deceive him, I should ab- 
hor it: Though he should increase in wealth, he would 
not be charitable : Even in prosperity he would gain no 
esteem, unless he should conduct himself better. 

It may also be observed, that the terms made use of 
to designate the three past tenses, are not exactly signifi- 
cant of their nature and distinctions. But as they have 
been adopted by grammarians in general, and especially 
as the meaning attached to each of them has been care- 
fully explained, there seems to be no essential objec- 
tion to their use 

The verb to have is conjugated in the following man- 
ner : 

To Have. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hist, or you have. 2. Ye or you have. 

3. He, she, or it hath or has. 3. They have. 



Part II.] etymology; 55 

Imperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

I. I had. 1. We had. 

2 Thou hadst, or you had. 2. Ye or you had. 
3. He had. 3. They had. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have had. 1. We have had. 

2. Thou hast had, or you 2. Ye or you have had. 

have had. 3. Ihey have had. 

3. He has had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had had. 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had, or you 2. Ye or you had had. 

had had. 3. They had had. 

3. He had had. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

or you shall or will have. 

have. 3. They shall or will 

3. He shall or will have. have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had, or 2. Ye or you will have 

you will have had. had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Have, or have thou or 2. Have, or have ye, or 
you, or do thou or you do ye or you have, 

have. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. * 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2 Ye or you may or can 

have, or you may or have. 

can have. 3. They may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, 

or should have. or should have. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or 2. Ye or you might, could, 

you might, could, would, or should have, 

would, or should have. 3. They might, c»uld, 

3. He might, could, would, would, or should have. 

or should have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have 

2. Thou mayst or canst had. 

have had, <>r you may 2. Ye or you may or can 
or can have had have had. 

3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have 

had. had. 

Ph/pe feet Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, 

or should have hail. or should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, kc. or 2. Ye or you might, could, 

you might, could, would, or should have 

would, or should have had. 

had. 3. They might, could, 

3. He might, could, would, would, or should have 

or should have had. had. 



Fart II.] ETYMOLOGY. £7 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense, — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou hast, or if you 2. If ye or you have, 

have. 3. If they have. 

3. If he, she, or it hath or 

has. 

Present Tense Second Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If W e have. 

2 If thou or you have. 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have. 3. If they have. 

The remaining tenses of the Subjunctive mood are in 
every respect similar to the correspondent tenses of the 
indicative mood, with the exception before made. See 
the conjugation of the verb to be, at the close of the 
Subjunctive present. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present. To have. Perfect. To have had. 

Participles. 

Present. Having. Perfect. Had. 

Compound perfect. Having had. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

The principal auxiliaries, or those which are most 
used, and capable of the greatest variations, are, be and 
have. But these, as may be seen in the foregoing dis- 
play of them, cannot be conjugated throughout all their 
moods and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary 
verbs, viz. may, can, fyc. with their variations. Auxil- 
iaries in their simple state, are of a very limited extent, 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

as will appear from a distinct conjugation of them. In 
their simple form, uncombined with any other, they arc 
conjugated as follows : 

To Be. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art, or you are. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast, or you were. 2. Ye or you were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Participles. 
Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 

To Have. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Piural. 

1. 1 have. 1. We have. 

2 Thou hast, or you have. 2. Ye or you have. 
3. He hath or has. 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst, or you had. 2. Ye or you had. 

3. He had. 3. I hey had. 

Perfect. I have had, &c Pluperfect. 1 had had, &,c. 

Participles. 

Present. Having. Perfect. Had. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 59 

Shall.* 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall. 1. We shall. 

2. Thoushalt, or you shall. 2. Ye or you shall. 

3. He shall. 3. They shall. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I should. 1. We should. 

2. Thou shouldst, or you 2. Ye or you should. 

should. 3. They should. 

3. He should. 

Will. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will. 1. We will. 

2. Thou wilt, or you will. 2. Ye or you will. 

3. He will. 3. They will. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I would. l..We would. 

2. Thou wouldst, or you 2. Ye or you would. 

would. 3. They would, 

3. He would. 

May. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may. 1. We may. 

2. Thou mayst, or you may. 2. Ye or you may. 

3. He may. 3. They may. 

Shall and will, though generally the sign? of the future, may some- 
times be considered in the present reus* 1 ; having \\u.' same analogy 
to should and would, that can lias in could, or may to might ; as, He 
thai I obey me at all times: Some people will never assist the poor. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part I). 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might. 1. We might. 

2. Thou mightst, or you 2. Ye or you might. 

might. 3. They might. 

3. He might. 

Call. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can. 1. We can. 

2. Thou canst, or you can. 2. Ye or you can. 

3. He can. 3. They can. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could. J. We could. 

2. Thou couldst, or you 2. Ye or you could. 

could. 3. They could, 

3. He could. 

To Do. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I do. 1. We do. 

2. Thou dost, or you do. 2. Ye or you do. 

3. He doth or does. 3. They do. 

Imperfect Tehse. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst, or you did. 2. Ye or you did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 

Participles. 
Present. Doing. Perfect. Done. 

The verbs have, be. will, and do, when they are un- 
connected with a principal verb, expressed or under- 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 61 

stood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs ; as, We 
have enough : I am grateful : He wills it to be so : 
They do as they please. In this view they also have 
their auxiliaries ; as, I shall have enough ; I will be 
grateful, &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will ap- 
pear from the following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, 
with greater energy and positiveness ; as, I do speak 
truth : I did respect him : Here am I, for thou didst call 
me. They are of great use in negative sentences ; as, 
I do not fear ; I did not write. They are almost uni- 
versally employed in asking questions ; as, Does he 
learn ? Did he not write ? They sometimes also sup- 
ply the place of another verb, and make the repetition 
of it in the same or the subsequent sentence, unnecessa- 
ry ; as, You attend not to your studies as he does, (i. e. 
as he attends) : I shall come if I can ; but if I do not, 
please to excuse me ; (i. e. if I come not.) 

Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, 
exhorting, commanding ; as, Let us know the truth : 
Let me die the death of the righteous : Let not thy 
heart be too much elated with success : Let thy incli- 
nation submit to thy duty. 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of 
doing a thing ; can and could, the power ; as, It may 
rain : I may write or read : He might have improved 
more than he has : He can write much better than he 
could last year. 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper and denotes 
necessity ; as, We must speak the truth whenever we 
do spc^ak, and must not prevaricate. 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates 

resolution and promising; in the second and third, only 

foretells; as, I will reward the good and will punish the 

wicked : We will remember benefits and be grateful : 

6 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Thou wilt or he will repent of that folly : You or they 
will have a pleasant walk. 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply 
foretells ; in the second and third person, promises, 
commands, or threatens; as, I shall go abroad: We 
shall dine at home : Thou shall or you shall inherit the 
land : Ye shall do justice and love mercy : They shall 
account for their misconduct. The following passage 
is not translated according to the distinct and proper 
meanings of the words shall and will : " Surely good- 
ness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; 
and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever;" it 
ought to be, will follow me, and I shall dwell. — The 
foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and 
cried out, " 1 will be drowned, and nobody shall help 
me ; made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs 
will and shall must be understood of explicative sen- 
tences ; for when the sentence is interrogative, just 
the reverse, for the most part, takes place : thus, 1 shall 
go; you will go; express event only: but Hill you 
go ? imports intention ; and Shall 1 go ? refers to the 
will of another. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood the 
meaning of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some 
alteration. 

Would primarily denotes inclination of will ; and 
should obligation ; but they both vary their imports and 
are often used to express simple events. 

Were is frequently used for would be ; and had, for 
would have', as, It were injustice to deny the execution 
of the law to any individual ; that is, it would be injus- 
tice. Many acts which had been blamable in a peace- 
able government, were employed to detect conspira- 
cies; that is, which would have been blamable. 

The auxiliary should, is frequently used to express a 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 03 

modest assertion ; as, I should think it would be for his 
interest to proceed ; i. e. I am inclined to think it would 
be : 1 should think the method he has chosen, to be 
judicious ; i. e. it is my opinion that it is. Such a 
manner of expression has the form of the potential 
mood, but the effect of the indicative. It cannot prop- 
erly be called the potential mood ; for it neither implies 
" possibility, liberty, power, will, nor obligation." It 
may rather be said to " indicate or declare a thing ;" 
and may be styled the indicative mood, in the potential 
form. The tense is present. 

THE CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Transitive. 
A regular transitive verb is conjugated in the follow- 
ing manner : 

To Love. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love.* 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest, or you 2. Ye or you love. 

love. 3. They love. 

3. He, she, or it loveth or 

loves. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst, or you 2. Ye or you loved. 

loved. 3. They, loved. 

3. He loved. 

* In the present and imperfect tenses, we use a different form of 
the verb, when we mean to express energy and positiveuess ; as, I 
do love ; thou dost love ; he does love : — 1 did love ; thou didst love ; 
he did love. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved, or you 2. Ye or you have loved. 

have loved. 3. They have loved. 

3. He hath or has loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved, or 2. Ye or you had loved. 

you had loved. 3. They had loved. 

3. He had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

or you shall or will love. love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you will have 

or you will have lov- loved. 

ed. 3. They will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 

Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are 
formed of the principal, without an auxiliary verb; as, 
1 love, I loved. The compound tenses are such as can- 
not be formed without an auxiliary verb ; as, I have 
loved ; I had loved ; I shall or icill love ; I may love ; 
I may be loved ; 1 may have been loved, &c. These 
compounds, however, are to be considered as only dif- 
ferent forms of the same verb. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 65 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou or 2. Love, or love ye or you, 
you, or do thou or you or do ye love, 

love. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 

love, or you may or love. 

can love. 3. They may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, 

or should love. or should love. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or 2. Ye or you might, could, 

you might, could, would, or should love, 

would, or should love 3. They might, could, 

3. He might, could, would, would, or should love. 



or should love. 



Perfect Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have lov- 1. We may or can have 

ed. loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 

have loved, or you have loved. 

may or can have lov- 3. They may or can have 

ed. loved. 

3. He may or can have 

loved. 

6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part It. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or 2. Ye or you might, could, 

you might, could, would, or should have 

would, or should have loved. 

loved. 3. He might, could, would, 

3. He might, could, would, or should have loved. 

or should have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. — First Form. 



J. 

9 

3. 


Singular. 
If I love. 
It* thou lovest, or if you 

love. 
It he loves. 


Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If ye or you love. 

3. If they love. 




Present Tense, 


, — Second Form. 


1 


Singular. 
If Hove. 


Plural 
1. If we love. 


2. 
3. 


If thou love, or if you 

love. 
If he love. 


2 If ye or you love. 
3. If they love. 



The remaining tenses af the subjunctive mood, arc 
in every respect similar to the correspondent tenses of 
the indicative mood, with the exception before made. 
See conjugation of the verb to be at the close of the 
subjunctive present. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 07 

Participles. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound perfect Having loved. 

The transitive verb may be conjugated differently by 
adding its present participle to the auxiliary verb to be, 
through all its moods and tenses; as, instead of I teach, 
thou teachest, he teaches, &c. we may say, I am teach- 
ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching, he, and instead of 
I taught, I was teaching, &ic. and so through all the 
variations of the auxiliary This mode of conjugation 
has, on particular occasions a peculiar propriety ; and 
contributes to the harmony and precision of the lan- 
guage. 

Passive. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary to be through all its changes 
of number, person^mood, and tense, in the following 
manner : 

To be Loved. 

Indicative Mood, 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved, or you 2. Ye or you are loved. 

are loved. 3. They are loved. 

3. He is loved. 

Imperfect Tense* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved, or you 2. Ye or you were loved. 

were loved. 3. They were loved. 

3. He was loved. 



63 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Pari II. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. Ye or you have been 

or you have been loved 

loved. 3. They have been loved. 

3. He hath or has been 



loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We hnd been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. Ye or you had been 

or you had been lov- loved. 

ed. 3. They had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 



First Future Tense. 
. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be lov- 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be ed. 

loved, or you shall or 2. Ye or you shall or will 
will be loved. be loved. 

3. He shall or will be lov- 3. They shall or will be 

ed. loved. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have beeR 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 

loved, or you will 2. Ye or you will have 
have been loved. been loved. 

3. He will have been lov- 3. They will have been 

ed. loved. 



Part JL] 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperative Mood. 



69 



Singular. 
£. Be thou loved, or do 
thou be loved, or be 
you loved, or do you 
be loved. 



Plural. 
Be ye or you loved, or 
do ye be loved. 



Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 

be loved, or you may 
or can be loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 



Plural. 

1. We may or can be lov- 
ed. 

2 Ye or you may or can 
be loved. 

3. They may or can be 
loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or 

you might, could, 
would, or should be 
loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 



Plural. 

1. We might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should be 
loved. 



Singular. 

1. I mayor can have been 

loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst, 

&,c. or you may or 
can have been loved. 

3. He may or can have 

been loved. 



Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We may or can have 
been loved. 

2. Ye or you may or can 
have boen loved. 

3. They may or can have 
been loved. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have been lov- or should have been lov- 

ed, ed. 

2. Thou mightst, &c. or you 2. Ye or you might, could, 

might, could, would, would, or should have 

or should have been been loved. 

loved. 3. They might, could, would, 

3. He might, could, would, or should have been lov- 

or should have been ed. 

loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. — First Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am loved. 1. If we are loved. 

2. If thou art loved, or if 2. If ye or you are loved. 

you are loved. 3. If they are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 

Present Tense.— Second Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl beloved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved, or if 2. If ye or you be loved. 

you be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

Present Tense— Third Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved, or if 2. [f ye or you were loved. 

you were loved 3, If they were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 

The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood are 
in every respect similar to the correspondent tenses of 
the indicative mood, with the exception before made. 
See conjugation of the verb to be at the close of the 
subjunctive present. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 71 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
To be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Being loved. 

Perfect or passive. Loved. 

Compound perfect. Having been loved. 

OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are of various sorts : 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses and 
perfect participle the same ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Cost, Cost, Cost. 

Put, Put, Put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect par- 
ticiple the same ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Sell, sold, sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense and perfect par- 
ticiple different; as, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Blow, 


blew! 


blown. 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Part II. 



Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, 
feed, fed ; leave, left : others by the termination en ; 
as, fall, fell, fallen : others change some of the letters 
and terminate in ght; as, buy, bought; teach, taught, 
he. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is 
presumed, be found both comprehensive and accurate : 



Present. 
Abide, 


Imperfect, 
abode, 


Perfect or Past Part, 
abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, r. 


awaked. 


Bear, to bring ^ 
forth, } 
Bear, to carry, 


bare, 
bore, 


born, 
borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, or beat. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring;, 
Build, 


brought, 
built, 


brought, 
built. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 

Cast, 


bought, 
cast, 


bought, 
cast. 


Catch, 
Chide, 


caught, r. 
chid, 


caught, r. 
chidden, chid* 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 



Fart JL 


I 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect or Past Part. 


Cleave, t 


o stick 


}■• 




or adhere, 




Cleave, t 


'o split, 


clove or cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 




clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 




clothed, 


clad, r. 


Come, 




came, 


come. 


Cost, 




cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 




crew, r. 


crowed. 


Creep, 




crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 




cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to 


venture, 


, durst, 


dared. 


Dare, to 


dial- ) 






lenge, 


R. 




Deal, 




dealt, r. 


dealt, r. 


Dig, 




dug, 


dug. 


Do, 




did, 


done. 


Draw, 




drew, 


drawn. 


Drive, 




drove, 


driven. 


Drink, 




drank, 


drunk. 


Dwell, 




dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Eat, 




eat or ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 




fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 




fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 




felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 




fought, 


fought. 


Find, 




found, 


found. 


Flee, 




fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 




flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 




flew, 


flown. 


Forget, 




forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 




forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 




froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 




got, 


got* 



73 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still 
good use. 

7 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Pari II. 



Present. 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Know, 

Knit, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, to lie 

Lie, to 

falsely. 
Load, 
Lose, 
Make, 
Meet, 
Mow, 
Pay, 
Put, 
Read, 



Imperfect. 


Perfect or Past Part. 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


girt, r. 


girt, r. 


gave, 


given. 


went, 


gone. 


graved, 


graven, r. 


ground, 


ground. 


grew, 


grown. 


had, 


had. 


hung, r. 


hung, r. 


heard, 


heard. 


hewed, 


hewn. 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


held. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


kept, 


kept. 


knew, 


known. 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


laded, 


laden. 


laid, 


laid. 


led, 


led. 


left, 


left. 


lent, 


lent. 


let, 


let. 


down, lay, 


lain. 


speak ") 

loaded, 




laden, r. 


lost, 


lost. 


made, 


made. 


met, 


met. 


mowed, 


mown^ R. 


paid, 


paid 


put, 


put. 


read, 


read. 



art H.J 


ETYMOLOGY. 


r 


Bsent. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect or Past Part. 


end. 


rent, 


rent. 


id, 


rid, 


rid 


ide, 


rode, 


rode, ridden.^ 


ing> 


rung, 


rung. 


ise, 


rose, 


risen. 


ive, 


rived, 


riven. 


un, 


ran, 


run. 


1W, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


*y> 


said, 


said. 


2e, 


saw, 


seen. 


3ek, 

3ll, 


sought, 
sold, 


sought, 
sold. 


end, 


sent, 


sent. 


et, 


set, 


set. 


bake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


hape, 
have, 


shaped, 
shaved, 


shaped or shape 
shaven, r. 


hear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


hed, 


shed, 


shed. 


hine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


how, 


showed, 


shown. 


hoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


hoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


hrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


hred, 


shred, 


shred. 


hut, 


shut, 


shut. 


ing, 
ink, 


sang, sung, 
sunk, sank, 


sung, 
sunk. 


it, 


sat, 


sat. 


lay, 


slew, 


slain. 


leep, 
iide, 


slept, 
slid, 


slept, 
slidden. 


ling, 
link, 


slung, 
slunk, 


slung, 
slunk. 


* Ridden 


is nearly obsolete.; 





75 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Part II. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Slit, 


slit, 


Smite, 


smote, 


Sow, 


sowed, 


Speak, 


spoke, 


Speed, 


sped, 


Spend, 


spent, 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


Split, 


split, 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


Spread, 


spread, 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


Stand, 


stood, 


Steal, 


stole, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


Sting, 


stung, 


Stink, 


stunk, 


Stride, 


strode or stride, 


Strike, 


struck, 


Strive, 


strove, 


String, 


strung, 


Strovv or strew, 


strowed or ") 
strewed, ) 




Swear, 


swore, 


Sweat, 


swet, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


Swing, 


swung, 


Take, 


took, 


Teach, 


taught, 


Tear, 


tore, 


Tell, 


told, 


Think, 


thought, 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


* Spilten is nearly 


obsolete. 



Perfect or Past Part. 

slit or slitted. 

smitten. 

sown, r. 

spoken. 

sped. 

spent. 

spilt, R. 

spun. 

split. 

spit, spitten.* 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

stridden. 

struck or stricken. 

striven. 

strung. 

strown, strowed, 

or strewed, 
sworn, 
swet, r. 
swollen, r. 
swum, 
swung, 
taken, 
taught, 
torn, 
told, 
thought, 
thriven. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


7 


Imperfect, 
threw, 
thrust, 
trod, 


Perfect or Past P art 
thrown, 
thrust, 
trodden. 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


wore, 


worn. 


wove, 


woven. 


wept, 
won, 
wound, 


wept, 
won. 
wound. 


wrought, 


C wrought or 
\ worked. 


wrung, 
wrote, 


wrung, 
written. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 

Present. 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 
Write, 

In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found 
to be conjugated regularly as well as irregularly ; and 
those which admit of the regular form are marked with 
an r. There is a preference to be given to some of 
these which custom and judgment must determine. 
Those preterites and participles which are first men- 
tioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible. Those 
verbs are not inserted which are irregular only in famil- 
iar writing or discourse, and which are improperly 
terminated by t, instead of ed ; as, learnt, spelt, spilt, 
&c. These should be avoided in every sort of compo- 
sition. It is however proper to observe, that some con- 
tractions of ed into t, are unexceptionable ; and others, 
the only established forms of expression ; as, crept, 
dwelt, &c. : and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable 
and necessary contractions must therefore be carefully 
distinguished by the learner from those that are excep- 
tionable. The words which are obsolete have also 
been omitted, that the learner might not be induced to 
mistake them for words in present use. Such are 
wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, 
hounden, &ic. and swang, rang, slank, straived, gat, &c. 
7* 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

In most languages there are some verbs which are 
defective with respect to persons. These are denomi- 
nated by some grammarians impersonal verbs. They 
ire used only in the third person because they refer to 
a subject peculiarly appropriated to that person ; as, It 
rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders. But as 
the word impersonal implies a total absence of persons, 
it is improperly applied to verbs which have a person ; 
and hence it is manifest that there is no such thing in 
English, nor indeed, in any language, as a sort of verbs 
really impersonal. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language* 
regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken 
together, is about 4,300. The number of irregular 
verbs, the deiective included, is about 177. 

The whole number of words in the Englith language 
is about thirty-five thousand. 

Before we close the account of the verbs, it may 
afford instruction to the learners to be informed, that 
different nations have made use of different contrivan- 
ces for marking the tenses and moods of their verbs. 
The Greeks and Latins distinguish them, as well as the 
cases of their nouns, adjectives, and participles, by vary- 
ing the terminations, or otherwise changing the form of 
the word ; retaining, however, those radical letters 
which prove the inflection to be of the same kindred 
with its root. 

This form, however, is not essential to the nature of 
the subject. The moods may be as effectually designated 
by a plurality of words, as by a change in the appear- 
ance of a single word, because the same ideas are de- 
noted, and the same ends accomplished, by either man- 
ner of expression. The modern tongues, particularly 
the English, abound in auxiliary words, which vary the 
meaning of the noun or the verb, without requiring any 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 79 

considerable varieties of inflection. Thus, 1 do love, I 
did love, I have loved, I had loved, 1 shall love, have the 
same import with Amo, amabam, amavi, amaveram, 
amabo, in Latin. It is obvious that a language, like the 
Greek and Latin, which can thus comprehend, in one 
word, the meaning of two or three words, must have 
some advantages over those which are not so compre- 
hensive. It may not be more perspicuous ; but, in the 
arrangement of words, and consequently in harmony 
and energy, as well as in conciseness, it may be much 
more elegant. 

Of Adverbs, 

An adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
adjective, a preposition, and another adverb, to qualify 
them ; as, He reads well : He is remarkably healthy : 
They were elated at their success almost beyond meas- 
ure : He spells very correctly. Sometimes the adverb 
qualifies a whole sentence without having reference to 
any particular word ; as, Now there stood by the cross 
of Jesus his mother, he. In the first of the above ex- 
amples the adverb qualifies the verb reads ; in the sec- 
ond, the adjective healthy ; in the third, the preposition 
beyond; in the fourth, the adverb correctly; in the 
fifth, the whole sentence in which it stands, by intro- 
ducing it with greater ease. Thus, as a qualifying 
word, the adverb is used very extensively. It is called 
an adverb because it is more frequently joined to a verb 
to qualify it than to any other part of speech. 

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are varied to 
express the different degrees of comparison ; as, Soon, 
sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest. Those end- 
ing in ly are compared by more and most; as, Wisely, 
more wisely, most wisely. 

Adverbs sometimes take the form of the adjective ; 
as, Agreeable to your request, 1 take the earliest oppor- 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

tunity to write to you. It should be, agreeably to your 
request, &tc. The contraction of the ly is admissible 
in poetry when necessary to preserve the measure ; as, 
Secure he sat, &c. and when two adverbs expressing 
manner come together ; as, He speaks remarkably cor- 
rect. It is sometimes admissible also in familiar con- 
versation ; as, She dresses plain, but neat ; instead of 
plainly and neatly. 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to 
express compendiously in one word what must other- 
wise have required two or more : as, He acted wisely, 
for, he acted with wisdom ; prudently, for, with pru- 
dence ; He did it here, for, he did it in this place ; ex- 
ceedingly, for, to a great degree ; often, and seldom, for 
many, and for few times ; very, for, in an eminent de- 
gree, &c. 

There are many words in the English language that 
are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as ad- 
verbs ; as, More men than women were there ; or, I am 
more diligent than he. In the former sentence more 
is evidently an adjective, and in the latter an adverb. 
There are others that are sometimes used as substan- 
tives, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, To-day's lesson is 
longer than yesterday's ; here, to-day and yesterday are 
substantives, because they are words that make sense 
of themselves, and admit besides of a genitive case : 
but in the phrase, He came home yesterday, and sets 
out again to-day, they are adverbs of time ; because they 
answer to the question when. The adverb much is 
used for all three ; as, Where much is given, much is 
required : Much money has been expended : It is much 
better to go than to stay. In the first of these senten- 
ces, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an ad- 
jective ; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing 
but the sense can determine to what part of speech these 
words belong. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. SI 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to 
certain classes, the chief of which are those of number, 
order, place, time, quantity, manner or quality, doubt, 
affirmation, negation, interrogation, and comparison. 

1. Of number ; as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of order ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, 
fifthly, lastly, finally, &c. 

3. Of place ; as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, 
anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hith- 
er, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, 
whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, &;c. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present ; as, Now, to-day, &c. 

Of time past ; as Already, before, lately, yesterday, 
heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &tc. 

Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, 
henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, pres- 
ently, immediately, straightway, &c. 

Of time indefinite; as, Oft, often, oftimes, oftentimes, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, year- 
ly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, he. 

5. Of quantity ; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how 
much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 

6. Of manner or quality ; as, Wisely, foolishly, just- 
ly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality 
are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally 
formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or 
participle, or changing le into ly ; as, Bad, badly ; 
cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably. 

7. Of doubt ; as, Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, 
perchance. 

8. Of affirmation ; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, 
doubtless, certainly, yes, yea, surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. Of negation ; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, 
not at all, in no wise, &cc. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part If. 

10. Of interrogation; as, How, why, wherefore, 
whether, &c. 

11. Of comparison ; as, More, most, better, best, 
worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are 
many which are formed by a combination of several of 
the prepositions with the adverbs of place here, there, 
and where; as, Hereof, whereof, thereof; hereto, 
thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; here- 
with, therewith, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; 
therefore (i. e. tbere-for), wherefore (i. e. where-for), 
hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon 
or whereon, &c. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, 
but becomes an adverb merely by its application ; as, 
when we say, He rides about : They came after the 
service had commenced. 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed 
of nouns, and the article a ; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, 
ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, 
&c. 

The words when and where, and all others of the 
same nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wher- 
ever, &c. may be properly called conjunctive adverbs, 
because they participate the nature both of adverbs and 
conjunctions ; of conjunctions, as they conjoin senten- 
ces ; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of 
time or of place. 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the 
word therefore, that it is an adverb, when without join- 
ing sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. 
When it gives that sense and also connects, it is a con- 
junction ; as, He is good, therefore he is happy. The 
same observation may be extended to the words conse- 
quently, accordingly, and the like. When these are 
subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are 



Part II] ETYMOLOGY. 83 

adverbs, the connexion being made without their help ; 
when they appear single, and unsupported by any other 
connective, they may be called conjunctions. 

It may be asked, what necessity is there for adverts 
of time, when verbs are provided with tenses to show 
that circumstance f The answer is, though tenses may 
be sufficient to denote the greater distinctions of time^ 
yet, to denote them all by the tenses would be a per- 
plexity without end. What a variety of forms must be 
given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, 
formerly, lately, just now, now, immediately, presently, 
soon, hereafter, &c. It was this consideration which 
made the adverbs of time necessary. 

Of Prepositions, 
Prepositions serve to connect words with one another 
and show the relation between them. To show the re- 
lation between words, is to express their situation with 
respect to each other ; to show what connexion subsists 
between them; or what reference they have to one 
another; as, This is the house of my father. Here the 
preposition of expresses the relation between house and 
father. The relation which it expresses is that of prop- 
erty or possession. But prepositions much more fre- 
quently express the relation between verbs and nouns, 
than between two nouns ; as, I am in health : He sleeps 
in peace : They are greatly esteemed by their friends : 
He labours with diligence. In all these examples, the 
preposition shows the relation, not between two objects, 
but between the being, state of being, or action, which 
the verb expresses, and the object which follows it; or, 
in other words, between the verb and the noun. It may 
be remarked that the preposition of commonly shows 
the relation between two nouns or objects ; all other 
prepositions do, in general, show the relation between 
a verb and a noun, or some word which supplies the 



S4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

place of a noun. Prepositions often seem to show the 
relation between two nouns or objects, when in fact, 
they show the relation between an action and an ob- 
ject ; as, I went from Boston to New York. In this 
example, the preposition to might be thought to express 
the relation between the two nouns. But it in reality 
shows the relation between the verb went and the latter 
noun; as will be evident by changing the order of the 
sentence : From Boston 1 went to New York. It will 
be easily seen that there is no particular relation be- 
tween the two places ; but the relation is between the 
places and the act of going : 1 go from one, and 1 go to 
the other ; and it is the relation which the act of going 
has to each place, which the prepositions are made to 
. express. The relation which the act of going has to 
Boston, is altogether different from that which it has to 
New York ; and as the relations are entirely different, 
two prepositions, of an entirely opposite meaning, are 
made use of to express them. In regard to the former, 
the relation of the act to the place respects merely its 
relinquishment ; in regard to the latter, its approxima- 
tion. 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


after 


to 


within 


below 


before 


about 


for 


without 


between 


behind 


against 


by 


over 


beneath 


on 




with 


under 


from 


upon 




in 


through 


beyond 


among 





Verbs are often compounded of a verb and preposi- 
tion ; as, To uphold, to invest, to overlook. This com- 
position sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, 
To understand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in Eng- 
lish the preposition is more frequently placed after the 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 85 

verb, and separately from it, like an adverb ; in which 
situation the preposition is not less apt to affect the 
sense of the verb, and to give it a new meaning ; and 
may still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as 
a part of it ; as, To cast, is to throw ; but to cast up or 
to compute an account, is quite a different thing ; thus, 
to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &se. So that the 
meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, 
depend on the preposition subjoined. 

One great use of prepositions in English is to ex- 
press those relations which in some languag-es are 
chiefly marked by cases, or the different endings of 
nouns. If we say, He writes a pen ; they ran the river ; 
the tower fell the Greeks ; there is observable in each 
of these expressions, either a total want of connexion, 
or a connexion which produces falsehood or nonsense; 
and it is evident, that before they can be turned into 
sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connect- 
ing word ; as, He writes with a pen ; they ran towards 
the river ; the tower fell upon the Greeks. We see by 
these instances,' how prepositions may be necessary to 
connect those words, which in their signification are not 
naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, 
seem to have denoted relations of place ; but they are 
now used figuratively to express other relations. 

The importance of the prepositions will be further 
perceived by the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effector con- 
sequence, and other relations connected with these ; as, 
The house of my friend ; that is, the house belonging to 
my friend : He died o/*a fever; that is, in consequence 
of a fever. 

To or unto is opposed to from ; as, He rode from 
Salisbury to Winchester. 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or 
8 



8(5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part IL 

circumstrnce, he. as, He loves her for (that is, on ac- 
count of) her amiable qualities. 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, 
agent, means, Sic. as, He was killed by a fall ; that is, a 
fall was the cause of his being killed : This house was 
built by him ; that is, he was the builder of it. 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. 
as, We will go with you : They are on good terms with 
each other. H ith also alludes to the instrument or 
means ; as, He was cut with a knife. 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being 
or acting, &c, as, He was born in (that is, during) the 
year 1820: He dwells in the city : She lives in afflu- 
ence. 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any 
kind ; as, He retired into the country : Copper is con- 
verted into brass. 

Within relates to something comprehended in any 
place or time ; as, They are within the house : He 
began and finished his work within the limited time. 

The signification of without is opposite to that of 
within; as, She stands without the gate. But it is more 
frequently opposed to with; as, You may go without 
me. 

Prepositions are sometimes used as adverbs, and 
may be parsed as such ; as. He passed by about twelve 
o'clock: They had their reward soon after: He dwells 
above. But if the nouns of time and place be added, 
they then take the character of prepositions ; as, He 
passed by this place : They had their reward soon 
after that time. 

Prepositions sometimes have the appearance and 
effect of conjunctions ; as, After he had said this, he 
dismissed the assembly : They made haste to be pre- 
pared against their friends arrived. When thus used, 
they may be properly called conjunctive adverbs. 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 87 

Sometimes several words taken together have the 
meaning and force merely of a single preposition ; as, 
He came out o/curiosity ; i. e. he c^mQ from curiosity : 
Jis to his property I know very little ; i. e. I know very 
little concerning his property : But for your interfer- 
ence, 1 should have succeeded ; i. e, without your inter- 
ference, I should have succeeded. Such may be called 
compound prepositions. If however, these compounds 
be analyzed, the second particle may be called a prepo- 
sition and the first an adverb qualifying it. For by 
recurring to the above examples, it will be perceived 
that in every instance, the first particle fits the other 
to sustain in a better manner its office in the sentence ; 
consequently it does, in a sense, qualify it. 

Of Conjunctions, 

A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
to connect sentences ; so as out of two or more sen- 
tences, to make but one. It sometimes connects only 
words. 

It is called a conjunction because it conjoins or unites 
together. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, 
the copulative and the disjunctive. 

The conjunction copulative serves to connect or to 
continue a sentence by expressing an addition, a suppo- 
sition, a cause, &c. as, He and his brother reside in 
London : 1 will go if he will accompany me : You are 
happy because you are good. 

The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to con- 
nect and continue the sentence, but also to express op- 
position of meaning in different degrees ; as, Though 
he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform : 
They came with her, but went away without her. 

The following is a list of the principal conjunctions : 



8S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. {Part II. 

The copulative : And, that, wherefore, if, both, then, 
since, for, because, therefore. 

The disjunctive : But, or, nor, than, lest, though, un- 
less, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a con- 
junction, and as an adverb ; and sometimes as a prepo- 
sition ; as, I rest then upon this argument ; then is here 
a conjunction ; in the following phrase, it is an adverb : 
He arrived then and not before. I submitted, for it was 
vain to resist ; in this sentence for is a conjunction ; in 
the next it is a preposition : He contended for victory 
only. In the first of the following sentences since is a 
conjunction ; in the second it is a preposition ; and in 
the third it is an adverb : Since we must part, let us do 
it peaceably : I have not seen him since that time : Out 
friendship commenced long since. 

The w T ord before may also be used as a conjunction, 
preposition, or adverb. When it simply connects two 
members of a sentence, it is a conjunction ; when it 
shows the relation between two words and governs an 
object, it is a preposition ; when it has reference to time 
merely, it is an adverb. 

So that and so as * and some others, are sometimes 
used as compound conjunctions ; as, The business, 
though not fully accomplished, was put in a favourable 
train, so that our exertions were not useless. " My soul 
thirsteth to see thy pow T er, and thy glory, so as I have 
seen thee in the sanctuary." Psalms. Should either 
of these compound conjunctions be analyzed, the first 
particle must be considered as an adverb, qualifying the 
verb in the preceeding member of the sentence ; and 
the second a conjunction. Indeed when taken as com- 
pound words, they evidently have the properties of 
these two parts of speech. Take for instance the last 

* Such compounds, and also the phrase as ice 11 as } may properly be 
called adverbial conjunctions. 



Part II. j ETYMOLOGY. 89 

example : To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in 
the sanctuary. So as here performs the office of an ad- 
verb of manner, and also connects the two members of 
the sentence. The idea is, To see thy glory in the man- 
ner I have seen it in the sanctuary. 

The phrase, as well as, is often used as a compound 
conjunction, as, His talents, as well as his acquirements 
were of a high order. This compound has also the 
properties of an adverb and conjunction; and should it 
be analyzed, the particle well would be an adverb quali- 
fying the verb were, the first as would be an adverb 
qualifying well, and the second as a conjunction con- 
necting the two parts of the sentence ; as will be seen 
by changing the construction, and placing the two ad- 
verbial particles with the verb ; as, His talents were as 
well of a high order as his acquirements. 

Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to 
connect sentences ; as, Blessed is the man who feareth 
the Lord, and keepeth his commandments. 

Relatives are not so useful in language as conjunc- 
tions. The former make speech more concise ; the 
latter make it more explicit. Relatives comprehend 
the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction copulative; 
conjunctions, while they couple sentences, may also 
express opposition, inference, and many other relations 
and dependences. 

Of Interjections, 

Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker; as, O! I have alienated my friend: alas! I 
fear for life: O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! 

The English interjections, as those of other lan- 
guages, are comprised within a small compass. They 
are of different sorts according to the different passions 
which they serve to express. Those which intimate 
8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part l\ m 

earnestness or grief, are Oh! ah! alas! Such as are 
expressive of contempt, are, pish ! tush ! of wonder, 
heigh! really! strange! of calling, hem ! ho! of aver- 
sion or disgust, foh! fie! away ! of a call of the atten- 
tion, lo ! behold! hark! of requesting silence, hush! 
hist! of salutation, welcome! hail! all hail! Besides 
these, several others, frequent in the mouths of the mul- 
titude, might be enumerated ; but in a grammar of a 
cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to expatiate on such 
expressions of passion as are scarcely worthy of being 
ranked among the branches of artificial language. 

Of Derivation, 

Having treated of the different sorts of words and 
their various modifications, it is now proper to explain 
the methods by which one word is derived from an- 
other. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways* 
viz : 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, 
and sometimes from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs; as, from 
to love, comes lo^er; from to visit, visiter; from to 
survive, surviver, &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is 
difficult to determine whether the verb was deduced 
from the noun or the noun from the verb, viz : love t 
to love ; hate, to hate : fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; 
walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act, &tc. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, 
and sometimes from adverbs : as, from the substantive 



Part II.] ETYMOLOGY. 91 

sa/t^comes to salt; from the adjective warm, to warm ; 
and from the adverb forward, to forward ; sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening 
the consonant ; as, from grass, to graze ; sometimes by 
adding en, especially to adjectives, as, from length, to 
lengthen ; short, to shorten. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives in the 
following manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are de- 
rived from substantives by adding y ; as, from health, 
healthy; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty, &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any- 
thing is made, are derived from substantives by adding 
en; as, from oak, oaken; wood, wooden; wool, wool- 
len, &.c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from sub- 
stantives, by adding/tt/: as, from joy, joyful ; sin, sin- 
ful; fruit, fruitful, he. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of 
diminution, are derived from substantives by adding 
some; as, from light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome; 
toil, toilsome, &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from substan- 
tives, by adding less ; as, from worth, worthless ; from 
care, careless ; joy, joyless, &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from sub- 
stantives, by adding ly ; as, from man, manly ; earth, 
earthly ; court, courtly, he 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or 
from substantives by adding ish to them : which tenui- 
nation, when added to adjectives, imports diminution, 
or lessening the quality ; as, white, whitish ; i. e. 
somewhat white. When added to substantives, it sig- 
nifies similitude or tendency to a character: as, child, 
childish ; thief, thievish. 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or 
verbs by adding the termination able ; and titose ad- 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

jectives signify capacity : as, answer, answerable ; to 
change, changeable. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, some- 
times by adding the termination ness : as, white, white- 
ness ; swift, swiftness : sometimes by adding th or t and 
making a small change in some of the letters ; as, 
long, length ; high, height. 

5. Adveibs of quality are derived from adjectives, 
bv adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the 
same quality as the adjectives from which they are de- 
rived ; as, from base, comes basely ; from slow, slowly : 
from able, ably. 

There are so many other ways of deriving words 
from one another, that it would be extremely difficult, 
and nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The prim- 
itive words of any language are very few; the deriva- 
tives form much the greater number. A few more in- 
stances only can be given here. 

Some substantives ^re derived from other substan- 
tives by adding the terminations, hood, or head, ship, 
ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, meat, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as sig- 
nify character or qualities; as, Manhood, knighthood, 
falsehood, he. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify 
office, employment, state or condition ; as, lordship, 
stewardship, partnership, he. Some substantives in 
ship are derived from adjectives : as, hard, hardship, 
he. 

Substantives ending in ery, signify action or habit ; 
as, slavery, foolery, prudery, &c. Some substantives 
of this sort come from adjectives ; as, brave, bravery, 
he. 

Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote 
dominion, jurisdiction, or condition : as, bailiwick, 
bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom, &c. 



Part II.] ETTMOLOGT. $3 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify 
profession ; as, physician ; musician, &c. Those that 
end in ment and age, come generally from the French, 
and commonly signify the act or habit : as, command- 
ment, usage. 

Some substantives ending in ard are derived from 
verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit ; as, 
drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard. 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but 
these are not many. They are formed by adding the 
terminations, kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the like; as, 
lamb, lambkin ; goose, goslin ; duck, duckling ; hill, 
hillock ; cock, cockerel, &ic. 

English words are also derived from the Saxon, 
Greek, Latin, French, and some other languages. 

The following account of the derivation of some of 
the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, is from the 
learned Home Tooke f s " Diversions of Purley." 

About — is derived from a, on, and bout, signifying 
boundary; On the boundary or confines. 

Among or amongst — comes from the passive partici- 
ple gemoenced, which is from gemengan, to mix. 

And — is from the imperative an-ad, which is from 
the verb, ananad, signifying to accumulate, to add to ; 
as, Two and two are four; that is, Two add two are 
four. 

Sunder — comes from the participle asundred of the 
verb asundrian, to separate: and this verb is from sond, 
sand. 

Athwart — is derived from the passive participle ath- 
weoried of the verb athweorian, to wrest. 

Beyond — comes from be-geond : geond, or goncd, is 
the passive participle of the verb gangan, to go, to pass : 
Be passed, be gone. 

But — from the imperative bot, of the verb botan, to 
boot, to superadd, to supply : as, The number of three 



04 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

is not an even number, but an odd ; that is, not an even 
number, superadd, (it is) an odd number. 

But — from the imperative, be-utan, of the verb beon- 
utan, to be out. It is used by way of exception : as, 
She regards nobody, but him ; that is, nobody be out 
him. 

if— comes from gif the imperative of the verb gifan, 
to give : as, If you live honestly, you will live happily ; 
that is, give you live honestly. 

Lest — from the participle, lesed, of the verb lesan, to 
dismiss. 

Though — from thofig, the imperative of the verb 
thafigan, to allow : as, Though she is handsome, she is 
not vain : that is, allow, grant, she is handsome. 

Unless — comes from onles, the imperative of the verb 
onlesun, to dismiss or remove : as, Troy will be taken 
unless the palladium be preserved ; that is, Remove the 
palladium be preserved, Troy will be taken. 

With — the imperative of withan, to join ; as, A house 
with a party-wall : that is, A house join a party-wall. 

Without — comes from wyrih-utan, the imperative of 
the verb ivyrthan-utan, to be out ; as, A house without 
a roof; that is, A house be out a roof. 

Yet — is derived from get the imperative of the verb 
getan, to get ; as, Yet a little while ; that is, Get a little 
time. 

Through — comes from G »thic and Teutonic words, 
which signify door, gate, passage ; as, They marched 
through a wilderness ; that is, They marched the pas- 
sage a wilderness. 

For — is from Saxon and Gothic words, signifying 
cause, motive ; as, He died for his religion ; that is, 
He died, the cause his religion. . 

From — is drived from frum, which signifies begin- 
ning, origin, source, &c. as, The lamp hangs from the 
ceiling; that is, Ceiling the place of beginning to hang. 



Part II.] etymology. 95 

To — comes from Saxon and Gothic words, which 
signify action, effect, termination, to act, &c. as, Figs 
come from Turkey to England : that is, Figs come — 
beginning Turkey — termination England. 

It is highly probable that the system of the acute 
grammarian, from whose work these Saxon derivations 
are borrowed, is founded on truth ; and that adverbs, 
prepositions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or ab- 
breviations of other parts of speech. But as many of 
them are derived from obsolete words in our own 
language, or from words in kiudred tongues the radical 
meaning of which is either obscure, or generally un- 
known ; and as by long prescription, whatever may 
have been their origin, the words in question appear to 
have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species; it 
seems proper to consider them as such, in an elementa- 
ry treatise of grammar : especially as this plan coincides 
with that by which other languages must be taught ; 
and will render the study of them less intricate. It is 
of small moment, by what name and classification we 
distinguish these words, provided their meaning and 
use are well understood. 



SYNTAX. 



The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats 
of the agreement and construction of words in a sen- 
tence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming com- 
plete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite* verb : as, Life is short. 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences, joined by one or more connective words: as, 
Life is short, and art is long. 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and 
compound, so the members of sentences may be di- 
vided likewise into simple and compound members : 
for whole sentences, whether simple or compounded, 
may become members of other sentences, by means of 
some additional connexion ; as, in the following exam- 
ple : The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his mas- 
ter's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not 
consider. This sentence consists of two compound 
members, each of which is subdivided into two simple 
members, which are properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the expli- 
cative, or explaining; the interrogative, or asking; the 
imperative, or commanding. 

An explicative sentence is one in which a thing is 
said to be, or not to be ; to do, or not to do ; to suffer, 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. 
Verbs in the infinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 



Fart II.] syntax. 97 

or not to suffer, — in a direct manner; as, I am; thou 
writest ; Thomas is loved. If the sentence is negative, 
the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the 
verb itself when it has no auxiliary ; as, I did not touch 
him ; or I touched him not. 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is 
asked, the nominative case follows the principal verb or 
the auxiliary ; as, Was it he ? Did Alexander conquer 
the Persians ? 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is command- 
ed to be, to do, or to suffer, or not, the nominative case 
likewise follows the verb or the auxiliary ; as, Go, thou 
traitor! Do thou go : Haste ye away; unless the verb 
let be used ; as, Let us be gone. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a 
whole sentence. 

The principal pans of a simple sentence are the sub- 
ject, the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attri- 
bute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and 
the object is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes 
before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase 
denoting the object, follows the verb ; as, A wise man 
governs his passions. Here, man is the subject; gov- 
erns, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and passions, the 
object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech 
has over another,, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of 

9 



% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

words in a sentence, the following rules and observa- 
tions should be carefully studied. 

Of the Nominative Case. 

RULE I. 

A verb agrees with its nominative in number 
and person : That is, 

If the nominative is singular, the verb is singular ; if 
the nominative is plural, the verb is plural. If the nom- 
inative is the first person, the verb is so ; or if it is the 
second or third person, the verb is the same ; as, I love ; 
thou readest ; he learns ; we are ; ye run ; they sleep. 
In these examples, love is in the first person singular and 
agrees with the pronoun J. Readest is in the second 
person singular and agrees with thou. Learns is in the 
third person singular and agrees with/te. Are is in the 
first person plural and agrees with we. Run is in the 
second person plural and agrees with ye. Sleep is in 
the third person plural and agrees with they. 

The following are a few instances of the violation of 
the above rule : What signifies good opinions, when 
our practice is bad ? !t ought to be, what signify. I 
have considered what have been said on both sides in 
this controversy ; what has been said. Thou sees how 
little has been done ; thou seest. \n piety and virtue 
consist the happiness of man ; consists. To these pre- 
cepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules and 
maxims ; is subjoined. 

The pronoun you, whether applied to a single person 
or to more than one, always requires the verb to be in 
the plural form ; as, You are my friend : You have 
placed me under great obligations: The subject was 
discussed when you were absent. We however often 
hear this pronoun used in a different manner. The fol- 



Part II.] syntax. 99 

lowing are a few examples : Was you there I I heard 
you was unwell: You was gone before 1 arrived. In 
all these cases were should be substituted for ivas. It 
should be recollected that you is of both numbers ; i. e. 
sometimes* singular and sometimes plural ; to be deter- 
mined from the manner of its application. When ap- 
plied to a single individual, as, You are my friend, it is 
the singular number; when applied to more than one 
individual,, as, You are my friends, it is in the plural 
number. 

And since number and person, as ascribed to the verb, 
is merely a figurative application ; since the verb has 
not these properties independently of the noun or pro- 
noun with which it is connected, it also varies its num- 
ber and person in the same manner; that is to say, 
when the pronoun refers to one individual only, the 
verb, although in the plural form, is of the singular 
number; and when more than one individual is refer 
red to, the verb is of the plural number. 

Every verb, except in the infinitive mood or the par- 
ticiple, ought to have a nominative case, either express- 
ed or implied ; as, Awake ; arise ; that is, Awake ye ; 
arise ye. 

The following are some examples of inaccuracy, in 
the use of the verb without its nominative case : 

As it hath pleased him of his goodness to give you 
safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great 
danger, &c. The verb hath preserved has here no 
nominative case, for it cannot be properly supplied by 
the preceding word him, which is in the objective case. 
It ought to be, And as he hath preserved you ; or rather, 
and to preserve you. A man whose inclinations led 
him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the 
business ; and who had, &c. A cloud gathering in the 
north, which we have helped to raise, and may quickly 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part 11. 

break in a storm upon our heads: and which may 
quickly. 

Every nominative ease, except the case absolute, and 
when an address is made to a person, should belong to 
some verb, either expressed or implied ; as, Who wrote 
this book f James ; that is, James wrote it : To whom 
thus Adam ; that is, spoke. 

The nominative is commonly placed before the verb ; 
but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple 
tense ; and between the auxiliary and the verb or par- 
ticiple, if a compound tense ; as, 

When a question is asked, or a command given ; as, 
Confidest thou in me ? Go ye : — When a supposition 
is made without the conjunction if; as, Were it not for 
him : — When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, 
there, then, thence, hence, thus, he. as, Here am I : 
Then cometh the end : — When a sentence depends on 
neither or no?-, so as to be coupled with another sen- 
tence ; as, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch 
it : — When a verb neuter, is used ; as, On a sudden 
appeared the king : — Or, when an emphatical adjective 
introduces a sentence ; as, Happy is the man whose 
conscience does not reproach him. 

RULE II. 

The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is 
sometimes used substantively, and performs the 
office of a nominative case to a verb ; as, 

To see the sun is pleasant : To be good is to be hap- 
py : A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is 
commendable : That warm climates should accelerate 
the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, 
is very reasonable to believe : To be temperate in eat- 
ing and drinking, to use exercise in the open air. and 



Part II.] syntax. 101 

to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, 
are the best preservatives of health. 

It may be observed, that when the whole sentence 
forms but one nominative, conveying unity of idea, the 
verb must be singular. But when several phrases, con- 
nected by a copulative conjunction, expressed or im- 
plied, constitute the nominative to a verb, the verb must 
be plural ; according to the above examples. 

RULE III. 

When a direct address is made, the noun or 
pronoun is in the nominative case independent ; as, 

O house of Israel : O king, live forever : Plato, thou, 
reasonest well. In these examples, the person speak- 
ing makes a direct address to house, king, and Plato, and 
they are therefore in the nominative case independent. 
It will be readily perceived that the nominative inde- 
pendent, must always be of the second person, because 
a direct address is made to no other. What is meant 
by a noun's being independent, when in this situation, 
is, that it is independent of any verb. There is no 
verb, either expressed or understood, with which it 
agrees. 

RULE IV. 

A noun or pronoun connected with a partici- 
ple, and standing independently of the rest of the 
sentence, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, 

Shame being lost, all virtue is lost : That having 
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume 
it. Here shane in the first example is in the nomina- 
tive case absolute ; i. e. it has no personal tense of a 
verb, but is placed with the participle independently of 
the test of the sentence. Although a noun thus sit 
9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part U. 

ed has no connexion, either by government or agree- 
ment, with any other part of the sentence, yet the par- 
ticiple with which it is joined has an agreement with 
the noun with which it is placed, and sometimes gov- 
erns another word in the objective case ; as, The sun 
having dispersed the clouds, it bee;an to grow warm. In 
this example sun is in the nominative case absolute 
with having dispersed; having dispersed agrees with 
sun i and governs clouds in the objective. 

As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in 
English, always the nominative, the following example 
is erroneous, in making it the objective : Solomon was 
of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise 
and true proverbs, as any body has done since ; him 
only excepted, who was a much greater and wiser man 
than Solomon. It should be, he only excepted. 

Of the Possessive Case. 

RULE V. 

When two nouns come together signifying dif- 
ferent things, the former, implying possession, is 
in the possessive case, and governed by the lat- 
ter ; as, 

My father's house : Man's happiness : Virtue's re- 
ward. The preposition of joined to a substantive, is 
frequently equivalent to the possessive case ; as, A 
christian's hope ; the hope of a christian. But it is 
only so, when the expression can be converted into 
the regular form of the possessive case. We can s&y, 
The reward of virtue, and Virtue's reward ; but though 
it is proper to say, A crown of gold, we cannot convert 
the expression into the possessive case, and say, Gold's 
crown. 

-times a substantive in the genitive or possessive 



Part II.] syntax. 103 

case stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed, 
being understood: as, 1 called at the bookseller's ; that 
is, At the bookseller's shop. 

If several nouns come together in the genitive case, 
the apostrophe with 5 is annexed to the last, and under- 
stood to the rest ; as, John and Eliza's books : This 
was my father, mother, and uncle's advice. B;it when 
any words intervene, perhaps on account of the in- 
creased pause, the sign of the possessive should be an- 
nexed to each ; as, They are John's as well as Eliza's 
books; 1 had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the 
apothecary's assistance. 

In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but 
the apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in sub- 
stantives of the plural number ending in s; as, The 
wrath of Peleus' son. Tnis seems not so allowable in 
prose ; which the following erroneous examples will 
demonstrate ' y Moses' minister : Pninehas' wife : Fes- 
tus came into Felix' room : These answers were made 
to the witness 9 questions. But in cases which would 
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the dif- 
ficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even 
in prose ; as, For righteousness' sake : for conscience' 
sake. 

In some cases we use both the genitive termi nation 
and the preposition of; as, ft is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton's. Sometimes, indeed, unless we throw the 
sentence into another form, this method is absolutely 
necessary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give 
the idea of property, strictly so called, which is the 
most important of the relations expressed by the geni- 
tive case : for the expressions, This picture of my friend, 
and this picture of my friend's, suggest very different 
ideas : the latter, only, is that of property in the strict- 
est sense. The idea wouid, doubtless, be conveved in 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

a better manner, by saying, This picture belonging to 
my friend. 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians 
term it, is not necessa -y to distinguish the sense, and 
especially in a grave style,- it is generally omitted. 
Except "to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable 
only in cases which suppose the existence of a plurality 
of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, A 
subject of the emperor's ; A sentiment of my brother's ; 
more than one subject, and one sentiment are supposed 
to belong to the possessor. But when this plurality is 
neither intimated, nor necessarily supposed, the double 
genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be 
used. 

Of the Objective Case. 
RULE VI. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, 

Truth ennobles her : She comforts me: They sup- 
port us : Virtue rewards her followers. 

In English the nominative case denoting the subject, 
usually goes before the verb ; and the objective case 
denoting the object, follows the verb transitive; and it 
is the relation that the noun has to the verb which de- 
termines its case. But the pronoun having a proper 
form for each of the cases, is sometimes placed after the 
verb, when in the nominative, and sometimes when in 
the objective it is placed before it ; as, Whom ye igno- 
rantly worship, him declare I unto you. 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its 
proper case and government to be neglected ; as in the 
following instances : Who should I esteem more than 
the wise and good ? By the character of those who 
you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be 
formed : Those are the persons who he thought true 



Part II.] syntax. 105 

to his interest : Who should 1 see the other day but 
my old friend ? Whosoever the court favours. In all 
these places it ought to be whom, the relative being gov- 
erned in the objective case by the verbs, esteem, choose, 
thought, &c. He who, under all proper circumstances, 
has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend* 
It should be, him who, &c. 

Some verbs of a neuter signification, and others 
whose action is generally confined to the agent, be- 
come transitive in certain situations, and govern an ob- 
jective case; as in the phrases, To dream a dream ; to 
run a race ; to walk a horse ; to dance a child ; to live 
a virtuous life. In instances like these, the verb governs 
the noun which follows it, and is therefore transitive. 
Intransitive verbs sometimes assume the form of the 
passive ; as, I am come ; I w#s gone ; he has grown \ 
I was fallen ; &c. These verbs are not passive, although 
they have the passive form, because they do not imply 
the receiving of an action or impression from another. 
The action originates with the agent, or nominative, 
and to this its effect is limited ; consequently the verb 
is intransitive. 

Let governs the objective case ; as, Let him beware : 
Let us judge candidly : Let them not presume. 

RULE VII. 

Participles of transitive verbs govern the ob- 
jective case ; as, 

They found him transgressing the laivs : And seeing 
the multitudes, he went up into a mountain : And finding 
disciples, we tarried there seven days : Trangressing, 
seeing, and finding, are participles and govern the nouns 
which follow them. 

A participle joined to an adverb is sometimes used 
independently of the rest of the sentence ; as, Generally 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAI. [Part II. 

speaking, his conduct was very honourable : Two ob- 
jects may sometimes be very happily compared to- 
gether, though they resemble each other, strictly speak- 
ing, in nothing A participle in this situation may be 
called independent, as it has no government of case or 
agreement with any noun. 

RULE VIII. 

Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others of 
a similar nature, govern two objectives, the one 
of a person and the other of a thing; as, 

He taught me grammar : His tutor gave him a lesson : 
He promised us a reward In these examples, the 
verbs, taught, gave, and promised, each of them governs 
the two nouns immediately following. 

Grammarians have generally considered the personal 
pronoun, in such cases, to be governed by a preposition 
understood ; as, He taught grammar to me. But the 
verb certainly has as much influ nee upon the pronoun 
me, as it has upon the substantive grammar; and why 
should it be said to govern one and not the other? 
There appears to be no propriety in understanding a 
word, or supposing a word to be implied, which, if ex- 
pressed, would neither add any thing to the sense, nor 
render the meaning any more intelligible. Hence there 
appears to be no propriety in understanding the prepo- 
sition to in the sentence under consideration ; since the 
meaning is better expressed when it is omitted. Let 
the sentence be subjeced to rigorous examination, and 
it will be found that the insertion of the word to, instead 
of being an illustration, is rather a perversion of the 
meaning ; for strictly speaking, it is not tiie grammar 
which is taught, but the pupil is taught in the science of 
grammar. To say, He taught me, is literally true ; but 
to say, He taught grammar, is true only in a figurative 



Part II.] syntax. 107 

sense. Sometimes however, the preposition may be 
inserted before the pronoun, and t*he literal meaning be 
preserved ; as, He gave me a book. Here the true 
meaning is, he gave a book to me. But although a pro- 
noun thus situated admits of a preposition before it, still 
the verb may be considered as the governing word, 
when the preposition is not inserted. Jt is not unfre- 
quent that the omission of a preposition gives the office 
of government to the verb, when it would belong to the 
p reposition, if it were inserted ; as, He visited my fa- 
ther's house; or, he visited at my father's house. He 
faces the storm ; or, he faces to the storm. He beg- 
ged me to be quiet; or, he begged of me to be quiet. 
He entered the city ; or, he entered into the city. In 
all these examples, when the preposition is omitted, tie 
verb is transitive ; it terminates on an object which it 
governs But when the preposition is inserted, the 
veib becomes intransitive; its power of government 
beins taken away by the intervention of another govern- 
ing word. 

RULE IX. 
Prepositions govern the objective ease ; as, 

I have heard a good character of her : From him that 
is needy, turn not away : A word to the wise is suffi- 
cient for them : We may be good and happy without 
riches. 

The following are examples of the nominative case 
being used instead of the objective : Who servest thou 
under ? Who do you speak to ? We are still much at 
a loss who civil power belongs to : Who dost thou ask 
for ? Associate not with those who none can speak 
well of. In all these places it ought to be whom. 

The preposition is often separated from the relative 
which it governs : as, Whom wilt thou give it to? in- 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

stead of, To ivhom wilt thou give it? He is an author 
whom 1 am much delighted with. This is an idiom to 
which our language is strongly inclined; it prevails in 
common conversation, and suits very well with the fa- 
miliar style in writing; but the placing of the preposi- 
tion before the relative is more graceful, as well as more 
perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn 
and elevated style. 

RULE X. 

The conjunction as, when it takes the mean- 
ing of for, or, in the character of, governs an ob- 
jective ; as, 

Addison, as a writer of prose, is highly distinguished : 
Shakspeare, as a describer of human nature, remains 
unrivalled : Brutus, although successful as a conspira- 
tor, was unfortunate as a general. In each of these ex- 
amples, as performs the office of a preposition, and gov- 
erns the following objective. 

RULE XI. 

Interjections sometimes govern an objective 
case ; as, 

Ah me ! O the tender ties ! O the soft enmity ! O me 
miserable ! O wretched prince ! O cruel reverse of 
fortune ! 

When an address is made, the interjection does not 
perform the office of government; as, O generation of 
vipers ! Who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to 
corne ! O Brutus ! The heavens speed thee in thine 
enterprise ! O constancy, be strong upon my side. In 
none of these examples does the interjection govern the 
noun which follows it ; because in every instance an 



Part II.] syntax. 109 

address is made, and consequently the noun is of the 
second person, and nominative case independent. 

It may be proper also to remark, that the interjection 
is not to be considered as governing a word, when, with- 
out essentially weakening the force of the expression, a 
verb may be supplied on which the noun or pronoun 
may terminate ; as, O how vile that deed ! How sad 
its remembrance ! i. e. O how vile was that deed ! 
How sad is its remembrance ! But when a verb can- 
not be supplied without altering the phraseology and 
diminishing the force of the sentence, the interjection 
should be considered as performing the office of gov- 
ernment. 

RULE XTI. 

The adverb like and the adjectives ivorth and 
like sometimes govern an objective case ; as, 

She moves like a queen. He is like his father. She 
is worth him and all his family. Like, in the first ex- 
ample, has the properties of an adverb, and qualifies 
moves. It also has the properties of a preposition, and 
shows the relation between moves and queen ; it there- 
fore governs queen in the objective case. In the sec- 
ond example, like is an adjective belonging to the pro- 
noun fie, and shows the relation between is and father, 
and consequently governs father in the objective. In 
the third example, ivorth is an adjective, and belongs to 
the pronoun she. It also shows the relation between is 
and him, and governs the latter word in the objective. 

Some grammarians consider words situated like queen, 
father, and him, in the above examples, to be governed 
by some preposition understood. But the insertion of 
a preposition would be altogether superfluous ; as in 
each c >e the office of a preposition is evidently per- 
formed by another word. Besides, it would be impos- 
10 



HO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part IL 

sible to place a preposition after the adjective worthy as 
here used, without giving the sentence a ridiculous con- 
struction, and involving its meaning in obscurity. 

RULE XIII. 

Nouns implying measure, price, length of time, 
and distance of space, are put in the objective 
without a governing word ; as, 

The building is fifty feet in length : He was offered 
for his services the sum of five dollars ; or, He was 
offered a reasonable compensation : They arrived seve- 
ral weeks ago : Baltimore is one hundred miles distant 
from Philadelphia. Here the nouns feet, dollars, com- 
pensation, weeks, and miles, are all nouns in the objec- 
tive case without a governing word. They are not 
governed by prepositions understood, for the obvious 
reason that prepositions cannot be used in this connex- 
ion with any propriety. Should they be inserted, they 
would be an incumbrance worse than useless. Take, 
for instance, the last example : " Baltimore is one hun- 
dred miles distant from Philadelphia," and let some 
preposition be supplied to govern miles. What prepo- 
sition will it be ? And how would the sentence read 
with it inserted ? The fact is, such is the idiom of the 
English language, that a noun thus situated needs no 
governing word ; the sentence is complete in its sim- 
plest form. 

RULE XIV. 

Participial nouns may have the same cases, 
and be governed in the same manner, as com- 
mon substantives. They also have the power of 
governing other words in the objective case ; as, 



Part II.] syntax. HI 

Our heavenly Father, by diffusing his benefits, manifests 
his kindness : Blessed is the man that keepeth his hand 
from doing evil. In these examples, diffusing and doing 
are participial nouns, in the objective case, governed by 
the prepositions by and from; and they likewise govern 
the nouns benefits and evil by which they are followed. 
Participial nouns are sometimes placed after transitive 
verbs and governed by them ; as, I cannot omit notic- 
ing this truth : They could not avoid seeing me as I 
passed along the street. Here, noticing and seeing are 
participial nouns, and are governed by the verbs omit 
and avoid. 

In the following examples the participial noun is 
intransitive, having no government of a case ; as, 
They talked of returning here last week: He is desir- 
ous of going with his friends. — In the following sen- 
tences, the participial noun is used in the nominative 
case : The loving of our enemies is the command of 
God : The executing of good laws will strengthen gov- 
ernment : His dying reduced the family to poverty. 

The participial noun, although capable of expressing 
the relation of property or possession, does not ele- 
gantly assume the distinctive form of the possessive 
case : thus, instead of saying, They were deprived of 
reading and writing's advantages : we more properly 
say, They were deprived of the advantages of reading 
and writing. 

Cases Corresponding. 

RULE XV. 

Two or more nouns coming together and sig- 
nifying the same thing, are put by apposition in 
the same case ; as, 

Joseph, the son of Jacob, was much beloved by his 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

father : The Israelites were greatly oppressed by Pha- 
raoh, king of Egypt : Give me here John the baptist's 
head. In the first example, Joseph and son both refer 
to the same person, and are therefore in apposition ; in 
the second, Pharaoh and king are in apposition ; in the 
third, John and baptist's are in apposition, and both in 
the possessive case. The sign of the possessive after 
John is understood. When two nouns in the possessive 
case thus succeed each other, in apposition, the sign of 
the possessive is very properly omitted after the former. 
Two or more nouns of the singular number, when put 
in apposition, always require a singular verb. The fol- 
lowing sentences are therefore inaccurate. Paul the 
servant of Christ, the apostle to the Gentiles, were emi- 
nent for piety and christian enterprise : was eminent. 
Solomon, the son of David, and king of Israel, are much 
celebrated for wisdom : is much celebrated. 

RULE XVI. 

Any intransitive or passive verb may have the 
same case after it as before it when both words 
refer to the same thing ; as, 

The disciples were first called christians at Antioch. 
The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same 
case after it as that which next precedes it : as, / am 
he whom they invited : It may be (or might have been) 
he, but it cannot be (or could not have been) /: It 
seems to have been he who conducted himself so wise- 
ly : It appeared to be she that transacted the business : 
1 understood it to be him : 1 believe it to have been 
them : We at first took it to be her ; but were after- 
wards convinced that it was not she : He is not the 
person who it seemed he was : She is not now the 
woman whom they represented her to have been ; 



Part II.] syntax. 113 

Whom do you fancy him to be ? By these examples, 
it appears that this verb has no government of case, but 
serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so 
that the two cases which, in the construction of the sen- 
tence, are the next before and after it, must always be 
alike. 

When the verb to be is understood, it has the same 
case before and after it as when it is expressed : as, He 
seems the leader of the party : He shall continue clerk : 
They appointed me executor ; i. e. he seems to be the 
leader of the party ; &c. 

Verbs which signify to become, to wander, to live, to 
die, to go, to return, and others of a similar nature, 
have the same case before and after them ; as, The 
calf became an ox : He wandered an outcast : He lived 
the object of paternal love, &c. 

Passive verbs have the same case before and after 
them, when both words refer to the same thing; as, He 
was styled Ccesar : She was named Penelope : Homer 
is styled the prince of poets : James was created a duke : 
The general was saluted emperor : The professor was 
appointed tutor to the prince. 

All the examples under this rule, and all others of a 
similar nature, may be explained on the principle that 
nouns and pronouns are in the same case, when they 
signify the same thing ; the one merely describing the 
other, or exhibiting it under different circumstances. 

Miscellaneous Rides. 

RULE XVII. 

Pronouns must always agree with their ante- 
cedents and the nouns for which they stand, in 
gender and number ; as, 

This is the friend whom I love : That is the vice 
10* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part Ii» 

which I hate : The king and the queen had put on their 
robes : The moon appears, and she shines, but the light 
is not her own. 

The relative pronoun is of the same person with the 
antecedent ; as, Thou who lovest wisdom : 1 who speak 
from experience. 

This rule is violated in the following sentences : 
Each of the sexes should keep within its particular 
bounds, and content themselves with the advantages of 
their particular districts ; better thus ; The sexes should 
keep within their particular bounds, &c. Can any one, 
on their entrance into the world, be fully secure that 
they shall not be deceived ? on his entrance, and that 
he shall. One should not think too favourably of our- 
selves; of one's self. He had one acquaintance which 
poisoned his principles ; who poisoned. 

Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in 
the objective case, are always placed before the verb; 
as are also their compounds, whoever, whosoever, &c. ; 
as, He whom ye seek : This is what, or the thing 
which, or that you want : Whomsoever you please to 
ap point- 
Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of 
the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sen- 
tence as the noun which they represent ; for it w 7 ould 
be improper to say, The king he is just : 1 saw her the 
queen : The men they were there. These personals 
are superfluous, as there is not the least occasion for a 
substitute in the same part where the principal word is 
present. The nominative case they in the following 
sentence, is also superfluous : Who, instead of going 
about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon do- 
ing mischief. 

The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as 
well as to things ; but after an adjective in the superla- 
tive degree, and after the pronominal adjective same, it 



Part II.] syntax. 115 

is generally used in preference to who or which ; as, 
Charles XII, king of Sweden, was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw : Catiline's followers 
were the most profligate that could be found in any city: 
He is the same man that we saw before. There are 
cases in which we cannot conveniently dispense with 
this relative as applied to person ; as, first; after who, 
the interrogative ; Who that has any sense of religion, 
would have argued thus ? Secondly, when persons 
make but a part of the antecedent ; The woman and 
the estate, that became his portion, were too much for 
his moderation. 

Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the ob- 
jective case of the personal pronouns, in the place of 
these and those; as, Give me them books; instead of 
those books. We may sometimes find this fault even 
in writing. 

In some dialects, the word what is improperly used 
for that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in writ- 
ing : Tiiey will never believe but what I have been en- 
tirely to blame. I am not satisfied but what, &c. in- 
stead of, but that. 

The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to 
persons, that there is generally harshness in the applica- 
tion of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the 
general terms man, woman, &c. 

We hardly consider litde children as persons, because 
that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection ; 
and therefore the application of the personal relative 
who, in this case, seems to be harsh. It is still more 
improperly applied to animals. 

In one case custom authorizes us to use which, with 
respect to persons ; and that is, when we wish to dis- 
tinguish one person of two, or a particular person among 
a number of others. We should then say, Which of 
the two ? or, Which of them is he, or she ? 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

It is, and it was, are often, after the manner of the 
French, used in a plural construction, and by some of 
our best writers ; as, It is either a few great men who 
decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a 
seditious ringleader : It is they that are the real authors, 
though the soldiers are the actors of the revolution : It 
was the heretics that first began to rail, he. 'Tis these 
that early taint the female mind. 

The neuter pronoun it, by an idiom peculiar to the 
English language, is frequently joined in explanatory- 
sentences with a noun or pronoun of the masculine or 
feminine gender; as, It was 1: It was the man, or 
woman, that did it. 

The neuter pronoun it, is sometimes omitted and 
understood : thus we say, As appears, as follows ; for, 
As it appears, as it follows ; and, May be, for, It may 
be. 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to 
express : 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry; as, It 
happened on a summer's day : Who is it that calls on 
me ? 

2d. The slate or condition of any person or thing : 
as, How is it with you ? 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of 
any effect or event, or any person considered merely as 
a cause ; as, We heard her say it was not he : The 
truth is, it was I that helped her. 

RULE XV11I. 

If there is no nominative between the relative 
and the verb, the relative is nominative case to 
the verb ; as, 

The master who taught us : The trees which are 
'planted. 



Part II.] syntax. 117 

When a nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of the sentence ; as, He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, whose 1 am, and whom I 
serve, is eternal. 

In the several members of the last sentence, the rela- 
tive performs a different office. In the first member, it 
marks the agent; in the second, it submits to the gov- 
ernment of the preposition; in the third, it represents 
the possessor ; in the fourth, the object of an action ; 
and therefore it must be in the three different cases, 
correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nomi- 
natives, each to different verbs, the relative is the nomi- 
native to the former, and the antecedent to the latter 
verb ; as, True philosophy, which is the ornament of 
our nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and 
the practice of virtue, than in great talents and exten- 
sive knowledge. 

When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, the noun or pronoun containing the answer must 
be in the same case as that which contains the question ; 
as, Whose books are these ? They are John's. Who 
gave them to him ? We. Of whom did you buy them ? 
Of a bookseller. To express the answers at large, we 
should say, They are John's books. We gave them 
to him. We bought them of a bookseller. As the rela- 
tive pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the 
subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to the 
question, that word or phrase may properly be termed 
the subsequent to the interrogative. 

RULE XIX. 
Every adjective, and every pronoun and par- 
ticiple, used adjectively, belong to some noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood ; as, 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

He is a. good as well as a wise man : Few are happy ; 
i. e. few persons are happy : This is a pleasant walk ; 
i. e. this walk is pleasant : He wrote in a style which 
was easy and flowing ; i. e. which was an easy and flow- 
ing style. 

The word means, and the phrases, by this means, by 
that means, are used by our best and most correct wri- 
ters, in the singular number. They are, indeed, in so 
general and approved use, that it would appear awk- 
ward, if, not affected, to apply the old singular form, and 
say, By this mean, by that mean; although it is more 
agreeable to the general analogy of the language. The 
word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class of 
words, which do not change their termination on ac- 
count of number; for it is used alike in both numbers. 

The word amends is used in this manner in the fol- 
lowing sentences : Though he did not succeed, he 
gained the approbation of his country ; and, with this 
amends, he was content : Peace of mind is an honour- 
able amends for the sacrifices of interest. 

The practice of the best and mostxcorrect writers or 
a majority of them, corroborated by general usage, 
forms, during its continuance, the standard of language ; 
especially, if, in particular instances, this practice con- 
tinue after objection and due consideration. Every 
connexion and application of words and phrases, thus 
supported, must therefore be entitled to respect. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less 
deviating from the general analogy of the language than 
those before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly 
proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following : 
None of them are varied to express the gender ; and 
yet none originally signified no one : He himself shall 
do the work ; here, what was at first appropriated to 
the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
case. 



Part II.] SYNTAX. 11$ 

When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- 
tence, and there is occasion to mention them again for 
the sake of distinction, that is used in reference to the 
former, and this in reference to the latter; as, Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by 
reason : but for that, man would be inactive ; and but 
for this, he would be active to no end. 

The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, 
either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of 
the singular number only ; unless the plural noun con- 
vey a collective idea; as, Every six months: Every 
hundred years. The following phrases are exception- 
able : Let each esteem others better than themselves ; 
It ought to be himself: The language should be both 
perspicuous and correct ; in proportion as either of 
these two qualities are wanting, the language is imper- 
fect ; it should be is wanting. Every one of the letters 
bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment : 
bears a regular date and contains. Every town and vil- 
lage were burned : Every grove and every tree were 
cut down ; was burned, and was cut down. 

Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad- 
verbs ; as, Indifferent honest ; excellent well; misera- 
ble poor ; instead of, Indifferently honest; excellently 
well ; miserably poor. He behaved himself conforma- 
ble to that great example ; conformably. Endeavour to 
live hereafter suitable to a person in thy situation ; suita- 
bly. 1 can never think so very mean of him ; meanly. 
He describes this river agreeable to the common read- 
ing ; agreeably. The adjective pronoun such is often 
misapplied ; as, He was such an extravagant, young 
man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few ye.ir* ; 
It should be, so extravagant a young man. 1 neve!" 
before saw such large trees ; saw trees so Lirgr. When 
we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word 
such is properly used ; as, Such a temper is seldom 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

found; but when degree is signified, we use the word 
so ; as. So bad a temper is seldom found. 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives; 
as, The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but 
suitably to his offence; suitable. They were seen wan- 
dering about solitarily and distressed ; solitary. He 
lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason 
and religion ; agreeable. The study of syntax should 
be previously to that of punctuation ; previous. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether an ad- 
jective or an adverb ought to be used. It may be of 
use to the learner to observe that the verb to be in all its 
moods and tenses generally requires the word immedi- 
ately connected with it to be an adjective ; consequent- 
ly when the verb to be can be substituted for any other, 
without varying the construction, or essentially varying 
the meaning, the verb thus capable of being changed, 
must also be connected with an adjective. The follow- 
ing are examples of this nature : tie feels warm ; (he is 
warm :) She lives free from care ; (she is, &c. :) They 
now appear happy ; (they now are happy :) He has 
grown bold in sin ; (he is bold, &tc. :) How delightful 
the country appears; (is:) How pleasant the fields 
look; (are:) The apple tastes sour; (is sour.) In all 
these sentences we can easily substitute some of the va- 
riations of the verb to be for the other verbs. But 
these same verbs are sometimes so constructed that we 
cannot do this ; and consequently are followed by an 
adverb; as, tie fi els warmly the insult offered him: 
She lives freely at another's expense : How happily 
they appear to live? He has grown sincerely virtuous. 

The rule to which these illustrations have reference, 
it is hoped, will be found useful, although it is not to be 
considered as of universal application. Anomalies in 
language must often be encountered. 

Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative sig- 



Part II.] syntax. 121 

nification, do not properly admit of the superlative or 
comparative form superadded ; such as, Chief, extreme, 
perfect, right, universal, supreme, &c. which are some- 
times improperly written, Chiefest, extremest, perfect- 
est, rightest, most universal, most supreme. 

Inaccuracies are often found in the. way in which the 
degrees of comparison are applied and constructed. 
The following are examples of wrong construction in 
this respect: This noble nation hath, of all others, ad- 
mitted fewer corruptions. The word/ewer is here con- 
strued precisely as if it were the superlative. It should 
be, This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions 
than any other. We commonly say, This is the weak- 
er of the two ; or, The weakest of the two ; but ihe 
former is the regular mode of expression, because there 
are only two things compared. 

A substantive with its adjective is sometimes reckon- 
ed as one compound word, whence, they often take 
another adjective and sometimes a third, and so on ; as, 
An old man ; a good old man; a very learned, judi- 
cious, good old man. 

Adjectives are often used substantively ; as, Have 
compassion on the ^oor; be feet to the lame, and eves 
to the blind. 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this 
case the word so used is sometimes unconnected with 
the substantive to which it relates ; sometimes connect- 
ed with it by a hyphen; and sometimes joined to it so 
as to make the two words coalesce. The total separa- 
tion is proper when either of the two words is long, or 
when they cannot be fluently pronounced as one word ; 
as, An adjective pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cis- 
tern : the hyphen is used when both the words are 
short, and are readily pronounced as a single word : 
Coal-mine, cOrn-mill, fruit-tree : the words coalesce, 
when thev are readily pronounced together, have a I 
It 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

established association, and are in frequent use ; as, 
Honeycomb, gingerbread, inkhorn, Yorkshire. 

When an adjective has a. preposition before it, the 
substantive being understood, it takes the nature of an 
adverb, and is considered as an adverb ; as, In general, 
in particular, in haste, &c. that is, Generally, particu- 
larly, hastily. 

RULE XX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, participles, 
and other adverbs ; as, 

The current flows rapidly : The terms of reconcilia- 
tion were very advantageous : What is more disagreea- 
ble than to hear a man perpetually complaining of the 
dealings of Providence ? They performed the service 
extremely ivell. 

Adverbs sometimes qualify a preposition, and some- 
times a phrase or whole sentence. A preposition ; as, 
To see the virtue of a hero tried almost beyond the 
stretch of human power : He arrived just before noon : 
He was scourged nearly to death. Almost, just, and 
nearly, are adverbs, and qualify the prepositions which 
immediately succetd them. 

The following are examples of an adverb's qualifying 
a whole sentence -without reference to any particular 
word. Now Herod the tetrarch heard all that was done 
by him and he was perplexed, &c. Well, if we must 
go, let us endeavour to be prepared. And what was 
the effect of such a mode of discipline ? Why it made 
the subject of it still worse. There was a man sent 
from God whose name was John. The adverbs now, 
well, why, and there, as used in the above examples, 
have no reference to any particular word, and add 
nothing to the sense, yet they qualify the sentences in 



Part II.] syntax. 123 

which they stand, by introducing them with greater 
ease. 

In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place 
where, is often used instead of the pronoun relative and 
a preposition ; as, They framed a protestation, where 
they repeated all their former claims ; i. e. in which 
they repeated. The king was still determined to run 
forward in the same course'* where he was already, by 
his precipitate career, too fatally advanced ; i. e. in 
which he was. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a pre- 
position ; for they signify, from this place, from that 
place, from what place. It seems, therefore, strictly 
speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with 
them, because it is superfluous ; as, This is the levia- 
than, from whence the wits of our age are said to bor- 
row their weapons : An ancient author prophesies from 
hence. But the origin of these words is little attended 
to, and the preposition from is so often used in construc- 
tion with them, that the omission of it, in many cases, 
would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. When thus in- 
serted, the preposition may be considered as a part of 
the adverb ; the adverb being divided into two words. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly 
applied to verbs signifying motion,, instead of the ad- 
verbs hither, thither, whither ; as, He came here hasti- 
ly : They rode there with speed. They should be, He 
came hither : They rode thither, &c. 

RULE XXI. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns ; as, 

Candour is to be approved and practised: If thou 
sincerely desire and earnestly pursue virtue, she will as- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part H. 

suredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward : 
The master taught her and me to write : He and she 
were schoolfellows. 

This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns which 
have the same bearing or relation with regard to other 
parts of the sentence. Conjunctions not unfrequently 
connect different moods and tenses of verbs. In such 
instances, however, the nominative must generally if 
not always, be repeated. We may say, He lives tem- 
perately, and he should live temperately : He may re- 
turn, but he will not continue : She was proud though 
she is now humble ; but it is obvious, that in such cases, 
the nominative ought to be repeated ; and that, by this 
means, the latter members of these sentences are ren- 
dered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as 
those are which come under the rule. When, in the 
progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to 
the negative form, or from the negative to the affirma- 
tive, the subject, or nominative, is always resumed ; as, 
He is rich, but he is not respectable : He is not rich, 
but he is respectable. There appears to be, in general, 
equal reason for repeating the nominative and resum- 
ing the subject, when the course of the sentence is di- 
verted by a change of the mood or tense. The follow- 
ing sentences may therefore be improved : An^er 
glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only 
in the bosom of fools; but rests only; or, but it mill 
rest only. Virtue is praised^ by many, and would be 
desired also, if her worth were really known ; and she 
would. The world begins to recede, and will soon dis- 
appear ; and it will. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the 
subjunctive mood after them. When something con- 
tingent or doubtful is implied, the verb is in the sub- 
junctive mood; as, If he approves of this arrangement, 
let him not hesitate to adopt it; He will not be pardon- 



Part II.] syntax. 125 

ed, unless he repent. If I were to write, he would not 
regard it. 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute na- 
ture require the indicative mood ; as. He is healthy 
because he is temperate ; though he is poor, he is con- 
tented and happy. 

RULE XXII. 

Two or more nouns connected by a copula- 
tive conjunction require the words with which 
they agree to be plural ; if connected by a dis- 
junctive conjunction, the verb, noun, or pronoun, 
with which they agree must be singular ; as, 

Socrates and Plato were wise ; they were the most 
eminent philosophers of Greece. The sun that rolls 
over our heads, the food that we receive, the rest that 
we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and superin- 
tending Power. 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which 
are annexed : And so was also James and John the 
sons of Zebedee, who were partners with Simon; and 
so were also. By whose power all good and evil is dis- 
tributed ; are distributed. Their love, and their hatred, 
and their envy, is now perished ; are perished. 

When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely dis- 
tinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they 
are very different, some authors have thought it allowa- 
ble to put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singu- 
lar number; as, Tranquillity and peace dwells there: 
Ignorance and negligence has produced the eftect : The 
discomfiture and slaughter was very great. This, how- 
ever, is not strictly conformable to the principles of 
grammar. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an cifect contrary to 

11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, 
noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
taken separately, it must be in the singular number ; as, 
Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake : John, 
James, or Joseph, intends to accompany me : There 
it, in many minds, neither knowledge nor understand- 
ing. 

RULE XXIII. 

A noun of multitude, or signifying many, has 
a verb, noun, or pronoun agreeing with it either 
in the singular or plural number. 

In the application of this rule regard should be had 
to the import of the word as conveying unity or plurali- 
ty of idea ; as, The meeting was large : The parlia- 
ment is dissolved : The nation is powerful : My people 
do not consider; they have not known me : The mul- 
titude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good : The 
council were divided in their sentiments. 

We ought to consider whether the term will imme- 
diately suggest the idea of the number it represents, or 
whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as 
one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be 
plural ; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus it 
seems improper to say, The peasantry goes barefoot: 
The people it represented by able statesmen. It would 
be better to say, The peasantry go barefoot ; the peo- 
ple are represented, &c. Ou the contrary, there is a 
harshness in the following sentences, in which nouns of 
number have verbs plural ; because the ideas they re- 
present seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind : 
The court of Rome were not without solicitude : The 
house of commons were of small weight : An army were 
immediately assembled : The court of Rome have been 
justly censured for their violent proceedings. 



Part II.] syntax, 127 

RULE XXIV. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, or participle ; as, 

Cease to do evil : They have a disposition to do right : 
He is eager to learn : Endeavouring to persuade. 

The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by a con- 
junction ; as, He was so sanguine, as to anticipate no 
opposition. Sometimes it is governed by an adverb; 
as, 1 know not how to proceed. Sometimes by a propo- 
sition ; as, The ship is about to sail. The preposition 
about, in this example, is in a similar situation to the 
participle going in the sentence which follows, and has 
the same influence in governing the infinitive mood : I 
am now going to speak to you on a subject of impor- 
tance. (See remarks on the word going, when con- 
nected with sentences thus constructed, in the account 
of Participles, page 4.">.) That the preposition a/)out 
governs the verb to sail in the above example, will ap- 
pear evident by changing the verb to a participial noun ; 
as, The ship is about sailing ; sailing is here evidently 
a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed 
by about. 

Tne particle to, though generally used before a verb 
in the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted ; 
as, I heard him say it ; instead of, to say it. 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs follow- 
ing them in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are 
bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not 
used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others ; as, I 
bade him do it : Ye dare not do it : 1 saw him do it : 
I heard him say it : Thou lettest him go. 

The sign to was anciently preceded by for ; as, 
What went ye out/or to see ? The word for, before the 
infinitive, is now, in almost every case, obsolete. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 



SUPPLEMENTARY OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The article refers to a noun or pronoun, express- 
ed or understood, and limits its signification. It is the 
nature of both the articles to limit the thing spoken of. 

A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, 
leaving it still uncertain which; the determines which 
it is, or, of many, which they are. 

2. Adverbs, though they have no government of the 
cases of nouns and pronouns, require an appropriate 
situation in the sentence, viz ; for the most part, before 
adjectives, after verbs transitive or intransitive, and fre- 
quently between the auxiliary and the verb : as, He 
made a very sensible discourse ; He spoke unaffectedly 
and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the whole as- 
sembly. 

For the placing of the adverb, however, on all occa- 
sions, no determinate rule can be given. Sometimes it 
is placed with propriety before the verb or at some dis- 
tance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries, 
and sometimes after them both The general rule 
above given may be of some importance, but the* easy 
flow and perspicuity of the phrase, are the things which 
ought to be chiefly regarded. 

3. In the use of words and phrases which, in point 
of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that rela- 
tion should be observed. Instead of saying, The Lord 
hath given and the Lord hath taken away ; we should 
say, The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away. 
Instead of, 1 remember the family more than twenty 
years; it should be, I have remembered the family more 
than twenty years. 

The last week I intended to have written, is a very- 
common phrase; the infinitive being in the past time. 



Part II.] syntax. 129 

as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly 
wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought 
of writing, to write was then present to me, and must 
still be considered as present, when I bring back that 
time and the thoughts of it. It ought therefore to be, 
The last week I intended to write. The following sen- 
tences are also erroneous : I cannot excuse the remiss- 
ness of those whose business it should have been, as it* 
certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good 
offices: There were two circumstances which made it 
necessary for them to have lost no time : History paint- 
ers would have found it difficult to have invented such a 
species of beings : They ought to be, to interpose, to 
lose, to invent. 

4. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, 
or are equivalent to an affirmative : as, Nor did they 
not perceive him ; that is, they did perceive him : 
This language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical ; 
that is, it is grammatical. 

5. To determine what case a noun or pronoun must 
be in, when it follows the conjunctions than or as, at- 
tend well to the sense and supply the ellipsis ; as, Thou 
art wiser than I ; that is, than I am : They loved him 
more than me ; that is, more than they loved rne : The 
sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better 
by Solomon than him ; that is, than by him. 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases in the 
preceding as well as in some other forms, may be dis- 
covered, by supplying the words that are not expressed ; 
which will be evident from the following instances of 
erroneous construction : He can read better than me : 
He is as good as her : Whether I be present or no : 
Who did this ? Me. By supplying the words under- 
stood in each of these phrases, their impropriety and 
governing rule will appear; as, Better than I can 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

read : As good as she is : Present or not present : I 
did it. 

When the relative who follows than, it must be in the 
objective case ; as, Alfred, than whom, a greater king 
never reigned, &c. Beelzebub, than whom, Satan ex- 
cept, none higher sat, &c. In these examples, whom 
is governed by than. It is remarkable that in such in- 
stances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would be 
in the nominative case ; as, A greater king never reign- 
ed than he, that is, than he was. Beelzebub, than he, 
he. ; that is, than he sat. 

6. To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some 
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, He 
was a learned man, he was a wise man, he was a good 
man, we make use of the ellipsis, and say, He was a 
learned, wise, and good man. 

When the omission of words would obscure the sen- 
tence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impro- 
priety, they must be expressed. In the sentence, 
We are apt to love who love us, the word those should 
be supplied. A beautiful field and trees, is not prop- 
er language. It should be, Beautiful fields and trees ; 
or, A beautiful field, and fine trees. 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less el- 
liptical ; some examples of which may be seen under 
the different parts of speech. 

The ellipsis of the article is thus used; A man, 
woman, and child ; that is, a man, a woman, and a 
child : A house and garden ; that is, a house and a 
garden : The sun and moon ; that is, the sun and the 
moon : The day and hour ; that is, the day and the 
hour. In all these instances, the article being once 
expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. 
There is, however, an exception to this observation, 
when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as, 



Part II.] syntax. IS I 

in the following sentence : Not only the year, but the 
day, and the hour. In this case, the ellipsis of the last 
article would be improper. When a different form of 
the article is requisite, the article is also properly re- 
peated ; as, JL house and an orchard ; instead of, a 
house and orchard. 

The noun is frequently omitted in the following man- 
ner : The laws of God and man ; that is, the laws of 
God, and the laws of man. In some very emphatical 
expressions the ellipsis should not be used ; as, Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God; which is 
mo. e emphatical than, Christ the power and wisdom of 
God. 

The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following 
manner : A delightful garden and orchard : A little 
man and woman ; that is, a little man and a little wo- 
man. In such elliptical expressions as these, the ad- 
jective ought to have exactly the same signification, and 
to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter substan- 
tive as to the foimer; otherwise the ellipsis should not 
be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to norms 
of different numbers ; as, A magnificent bouse and 
gardens. In this case it is better to use another ad- 
jective ; as, A magnificent bouse and fine gardens. 

The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : I love 
and fear him ; thai is, i love him, and 1 fear him : My 
house and lands ; that is, my house and my lands; 

In these instances the ellipsis may take place with 
propriety ; but ii we would be more express and em- 
phatical, it must not be used ; as, His friends and his 
ibes ; My sous and my daughters. 

In some of the common tonus of speech, the relative 
pronoun is usual!) omitted ; as, This is the man they 
love ; instead of, This is the man whom they love. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

These are the goods they bought ; for, These are the 
goods ivhich they bought. 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the 
relative pronoun expressed ; as, it is more proper to 
say, The posture in which I lay ; than, In the posture 
1 lay ; The horse on which I rode fell down ; than, The 
horse, I rode, fell down. 

The antecedent and relative connect the parts of a 
sentence together, and, to prevent obscurity and confu- 
sion, should answer to each other with great exactness. 
We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen. Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and 
ought to be supplied : as, We speak that which we do 
know, and testify that which we have seen. 

The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following in- 
stances : The man was old and crafty ; that is, the man 
was old, and the man was crafty : She was young, and 
beauuful, and good j that is, She was young, she was 
beautiful, and she was good : Thou art poor, and wretch- 
ed, and miserable, and blind, and naked. If we would 
fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, tho* art ought to 
be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If in such enumerations, we choose to point out one 
properly above the rest, that property must be placed 
last, and the ellipsis supplied ; as, She is young and 
beautiful, and she is good. 

1 went to see and hear him ; that is, I went to see 
and I went to hear him. In this instance there is not 
only an ellipsis of the governing word went, but likewise 
of the sign of the infinitive mood. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the 
rest of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are fre- 
quently used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb ; 
as, He regards his word, but thou dost not; i. e. dost 
not regard it: We succeeded, but they did not; did 
not succeed : 1 have learned my task, but thou hast 



Part II.] SPECIMEN OF PARSING. 133 

not; hast not learned. They must and they shall be 
punished ; that is, they must be punished. 

The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
manner : He spoke and acted wisely ; that is, He spoke 
wisely, and he acted wisely Thrice I went and offer- 
ed my service; that is, Thrice 1 went, and thrice 1 of- 
fered my service. 

The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, 
is seen in the following instances : He went into the 
abbeys, halls, and public buildings ; that is, he went 
into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went 
into the public buildings. He also went through all 
the streets and lanes of the city ; that is, Through all 
the streets, and through all the lanes, he. He spoke 
to every man and woman there ; that is, to every man 
and to every woman. The Lord do that which seem- 
eth him good, that igj which seemeth to him. 

The ellipsis of the ^conjunction is as follows : They 
confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their 
Creator; i. e. the power, and wisdom, and goodness, 
and love of, &c. Though I love him, I do not flatter 
him ; that is, Though i love him, yet I do not flatter 
him. 

The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; 
it, however, is sometimes used ; as, O the soft enmity ! 
endearing strife ! that is, O the soft enmity ! O the en- 
dearing strife ! 



SPECIMEN OF PARSING. 

To parse a word, is to tell its properties and gram- 
matical relations. To parse a sentence, is to describe 
the properties of all the parts of speech of which it is 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

composed, and show their mutual relations and depend- 
encies ; as in the following example : 

The man is happy who lives virtuously. 

The is the definite article, relating to man. Man is 
a common noun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, and nominative case to is. Is is an irregu- 
lar, intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with man. 
Rule I*. Happy is an adjective, in the positive state, 
and belongs to man. Rule 19. Who is a relative pro- 
noun, referring to man as its antecedent, third person, 
singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case 
to lives ; Rule 17. and 18. Lives is a regular intransi- 
tive verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with who ; Rule 1. Vir- 
tuously is an adverb of manner, and qualifies lives. 
Rule 20. 

The pupil, as he proceeds, should not only be able 
to apply the rules, but to give his reasons for dis- 
posing as, as he does, of each word which he is called 
upon to parse ; as, 

Why is the an article ? Because it is a word pre- 
fixed to a substantive to point it out and limit its signifi- 
cation. Why is it called the definite article ? Because 
it points out the particular subject to which it relates. 

Why is man a noun ? Because it is the name of 
something. Why a common noun ? Because it is one 
of a species, or one of many kinds. Why third person ? 
Because it is the person spoken of. Why singular 
number? Because it expresses but one object. Why 
masculine gender? Because it denotes an object of the 
male kind. Why in the nominative case ? Because it 
is the subject ot the verb. 

*The rules referred to should be repeated. The young learner 
should also be required frequently to decline nouns, compare adjec- 
tives, and conjugate verbs, as they occur in his lesson. 



Part II.] SPECIMEN OF PARSING. 135 

Why is is a verb ? Because it expresses being or 
state of being. Why is it irregular? Because it does 
not form its imperfect tense and perfect participle in d 
or ed* Why is it intransitive f Because it does not 
pass over and terminate on any object. Why is it in 
the indicative mood? Because it is a simple declara- 
tion. Why is it present tense ? Because it represents 
the being or state of being expressed, as existing at the 
time of speaking.* Why is it said to be of the third 
person and singular number ? Because its nomina- 
tive is. 

Why is happy an adjective ? Because it is prefixed 
to a noun to qualify it. Why is it said to be in the 
positive state ? Because it simply qualifies, without any 
increase or diminution in its signification. 

Why is vjho a pronoun ? Because it is used instead 
of a noun. What noun is it used instead of ? Man. 
Why is it called a relative pronoun ? Because it relates 
to a word going before called the antecedent. Why is 
it said to be of the third person, singular number, and 
masculine gender ? Because this is the person, num- 
ber, and gender of its antecedent. 

Why is lives a regular verb ? Because it forms its 
imperfect tense and perfect participle in ed. 

Why is virtuously an adverb ? Because it is joined 
to a verb to qualify it. 

Young scholars should be thus interrogated in regard 
to the reasons why they assign particular names, offices, 
and relations, to particular words; till all the elementa- 

* This is the proper answer whea the verb is a neuter intransitive. 
If the verb be passive, the proper answer to the inquiry why it is in 
the present tense, would be, Because it represents the passion or the 
receiving of the acliov as taking place at the time of speaking ; if ac- 
tive, Because it represents the action as passing at tin* time oi speak- 
ing. In all cases, the answer should thus be made to correspond 
with the nature and ollice of the particular word to which it has 
reference . 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

ry principles of grammar become perfectly familiar. 
They may then be permitted to parse without a formal 
repetition of rules and reasons, except occasionally. 
This practice of analysing language is of great impor- 
tance ; it will serve not only to discipline the mind, by 
quickening its powers of investigation ; but, will also 
tend, more than any thing else, to render the whole 
system of grammar intelligible, and make it an interest- 
ing as well as a profitable study. 



Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing. 
PROSE. 

Virtue exalts us ; vice degrades us. 

The day was calm ; the scene was delightful. 

True politeness has its seat in the heart. 

Truth and candour possess a powerful charm. 

A great proportion of human evils is created by our- 
selves. 

If folly entice thee, resist its allurements. 

He who wishes to be happy should walk in the paths 
of wisdom and virtue. 

Engrave on your minds this sacred rule ; " Do unto 
others, as you wish that they should do unto you." 

Temper the vivacity of youth, with a proper mixture 
of serious thought. 

The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheer- 
ful. 

In preparing for another world, we must not neglect 
the duties of this life. 

The manner in which we employ our present time ; 
may decide our future happiness or misery. 

How feeble are the attractions of the fairest form, 
when nothing within corresponds to them I 



Part II.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 137 

Can we, untouched by gratitude, view that profusion 
of good, which the Divine hand pours around us? 

The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, the mild 
zeyphr, are the proper emblems of a gentle temper, and 
a peaceful life. Among the sons of strife all is loud and 
tempestuous. 

If we possess not the power of self-government, we 
shairbe the prey of every loose inclination that chances 
to rise. Pampered by continual indulgence, all our 
passions will become mutinous and headstrong. De- 
sire, not reason, will be the ruling principle of our con- 
duct. 

Absurdly we spend our time in contending about the 
trifles of a day, while we ought to be preparing for a 
higher existence. 

How little do they know of the true happiness of life, 
who are strangers to that intercourse of good offices and 
kind affections, which, by a pleasing charm, attaches 
men to one another, and circulates rational enjoyment 
from heart to heart. 

If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections and 
failings, in a just light, we shall rather be surprised at 
our enjoying so many good things, than discontented, 
because there are any which we want. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, 
and promotes the happiness of all around him. It is 
the clear and calm sunshine of a mind illuminated by 
piety and virtue. 

Let not your expectations from the years that are to 
come, rise too high ; and your disappointments will be 
fewer, and more easily supported. 

A contented temper opens a clear sky and brightens 
every object around us. It is in the sullen and dark 
shade of discontent, that noxious passions, like venom- 
ous animals, breed and prey upon the heart. 

Sobriety of mind is one of those virtues, which the 
12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

present condition of human life strongly inculcates. 
The uncertainty of its enjoyments, checks presumption ; 
the multiplicity of its dangers, demands perpetual cau- 
tion. Moderation, vigilance, and self government are 
duties incumbent on all ; but especially on such as are 
beginning the journey of life. 

POETRY. 

DISCIPLINE— Cowper. 

In colleges and halls, in ancient days, 

When, learning, virtue, piety, and truth, 

Were precious, and inculcated with care, 

There dwelt a sage call'd Discipline. His head. 

Not yet by time completely silver'd o'er, 

Bespoke him past the bounds of freakish youth, 

But strong for service still, and unimpaired. 

His eye was meek and gentle, and a smile 

Play'd on his lips ; and in his speech was heard 

Paternal sweetness, dignity and love. 

The occupation dearest to his heart 

Was to encourage goodness. He would stroke 

The head of modest and ingenuous worth, 

That blush'd at its own praise ; and press the youth 

Close to his side that pleas'd him. Learning grew 

Beneath his care, a thriving vigorous plant ; 

The mind was well inform'd, the passions held 

Subordinate, and diligence was choice. 

DISAPPOINTED HOPE— White. 

Fifty years hence,* and who will hear of Henry? 
Oh ! none ; — another busy brood of beings 
Will shoot up in the interim, and none 
Will hold him in remembrance. I shall sink, 

* Years, is a noun without a governing word ; Rule 13.— Hence, h 
an adverb and qualifies is understood ; as, A period having arrived 
wihch is fifty years hence, &.c. 



Part II.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 139 

As sinks a stranger in the crowded streets 
Of busy London : — Some short bustle's caus'd, 
A few inquiries, and the crowds close in, 
And all 's forgotten. — On my grassy grave 
The men of future times will careless tread, 
And read my name upon the sculptured stone j 
Nor will the sound, familiar to their ears, 
Recall my vanish'd memory. — I did hope 
For better things ! — I hop'd I should not leave 
The earth without a vestige ; — Heaven decrees 
It shall be otherwise, and I submit. 

THANATOPSIS— Bryant. 

All that tread 
The globe are but a handful to the tribes 
That slumber in its bosom. — Take the wings 
Of morning — and the Barcan desert pierce, 
Or lose thyself in the continuous woods 
Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound, 
Save his own dashings — yet — the dead are there, 
And millions in those solitudes, since first 
The flight of years began, have laid them down 
In their last sleep — the dead reign there alone.— 
So shalt thou rest — and what if thou shalt fall 
Unnoticed by the living— and no friend 
Take note of thy departure ? All that breathe 
Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh 
When thou art gone, the solemn brood of care 
Plod on, and each one as before will chase 
His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave 
Their mirth and their employments, and shall come 
And make their bed with thee. As the long train 
Of ages glide away, the sons of men, 
The youth in life's green spring, and he who goes 
In the full strength of years, matron, and maid, 
The bow'd with a^e, the infant, in the smiles 
And beauty of its innocent age cut off, — 
Shall one by one be gathered to thy side, 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part H. 

By those, who in their turn shall follow them. 
So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 
To the pale realms of shade, where eaGh shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon ; but, sustained and sooth'd 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

PROPHETIC VISION— Cowper. 

Oh scenes surpassing fable, and yet true ! 
Scenes of accomplished bliss ! which, who can see, 
Though but in distant prospect, and not feel 
His soul refresh'd with foretaste of the joy ? 
Rivers of gladness water all the earth, 
And ciothe all climes with beauty ; the reproach 
Of barrenness is past. The fruitful field 
Laughs with abundance ; and the land, once lean, 
Or fertile only in its own disgrace, 
Exults to see its thistly curse repealed. 
The various seasons woven into one, 
And that one season an eternal spring, 
The garden fears no blight, and needs no fence, 
For there is none to covet, all are full. 
The lion, and the libbard, and the bear 
Graze with the fearless flocks ; all bask at noon 
Together, or gambol in the shade 
Of the same grove, and drink one common stream. 
Antipathies are none. No foe to man 
Lurks in the serpent now ; the mother sees, 
And smiles to see, her infant's playful hand 
Stretch'd forth to dally with the crested worm, 
To stroke his azure neck, or to receive 
The lambent homage of his arrowy tongue. 
All oreatures worship man, and all mankind 
One Lord, one Father. Error has no place : 



Part II.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 141 

That creeping pestilence is driven away : 

The breath of heaven has chas'd it. In the heart, 

No passion touches a discordant string, 

But all is harmony and love. Disease 

Is not ; the pure and uncontaminate blood 

Holds its due course, nor fears the frost of age. 

One song employs all nations : and all cry, 

<c Worthy the Lamb, for he was slain for us ! " 

The Existence of God proved from the Light of Nature. 

Young. 

What am I ? and from whence ? — I nothing know, 
But that I am ; and since I am, conclude 
Something eternal. Had there e'er been nought, 
Nought still had been ; Eternal there must be. — 
But what eternal? — Why not human race? 
And Adam's ancestors without an end ? — 
That's hard to be conceived ; since every link 
Of that long-chained succession is so frail : 
Can every part depend, and not the whole ? 
Yet grant it true ; new difficulties rise ; 
I'm still quite out at sea ; nor see the shore. 
Whence earth- and these bright orbs? — Eternal too/ 
Grant matter was eternal; still these orbs 
Would want some other Father ; — Much design 
Is seen in all their motions, all their makes ; 
Design implies intelligence, and art : 
That can't be from themselves — or man ; that art 
Man scarce can comprehend, could Man bestow? 
And nothing greater yet allowed, than Man.— 
Who, motion, foreign to the smallest grnin, 
Shot through vast masses of enormous weight ? 
Who bid brute matter's restive lump assume 
Such various forms, and gave it wings to fly ? 
Has matter innate motion ? Then each atom, 
Asserting its indisputable right 
To dance, would form a universe of dust : 
Has matter none ? Then whence these glorious forms, 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Part II. 

And boundless flights ? from shapeless, and reposed ? 

Has matter more than motion ? Has it thought, 

Judgment, and genius ? Is it deeply learned 

In mathematics ? has it framed such laws, 

Which, but to guess, a Newton made immortal? — 

If so, how each sage atom laughs at me, 

Who think a clod inferior to a man ! 

If art, to form ; and counsel to conduct ; 

And that with greater far than human skill ; 

Resides not in each block j — a GODHEAD reigns. 



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